Behavioral development of a malformed infant in a free-ranging group of Japanese monkeys

Abstract

ABSTRACT. The behavioral development of a malformed male infant in a free-ranging Japanese monkey group, whose hands were completely missing and whose hind feet were distorted, was investigated during the first one year of life, by comparison with normal infants. In the first few weeks of life, the malformed infant was not able to move by himself and was almost completely dependent on his mother's help. He gradually became able to creep with his forelimb elbows and distorted hind feet at about the first month of life, and was able to walk bipedally on his hind feet, though unstably, after the sixth month of life. His locomotor ability, however, was essentially inferior to that of normal infants throughout the first one year of life. His social interactions with the group members were different from those of normal infants. Normal infants increased their interactions with sameaged infants or older juveniles through active behavior-like play, whereas the malformed infant developed relations particularly with adults through behavior such as passive body contact. The conditions for survival of the observed malformed infant are discussed.

Activity and enrichment use in disabled Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) rescued from bile farms

“…Blind individuals may have a reduced ability to perceive or produce normal social signals: blind infant rhesus macaques produced some apparently inadvertent, but threatening social signals, sometimes leading to aggression by the receiver (Berkson 1973), and blind infant crab-eating macaques (Macaca fascicularis) less frequently showed facial expressions during social interactions than did sighted infants (Berkson 1977). An infant Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) with congenitally missing hands and malformed feet was found in proximity to other infants or juveniles less often than were non-disabled infants, and played with them less often, seemingly because his limited mobility prevented him from following them (Nakamichi et al 1983). Finally, clinical reports of geriatric companion animals further suggest that both blindness and pain may lead to increased aggression (Landsberg & Araujo 2005).…”

“…Blind rhesus macaques navigated around their environment and located food in part by feeling the ground with their hands (Berkson 1973). The Japanese monkey with missing hands eventually learned to walk bipedally (Nakamichi et al 1983). We studied a group of adult Asiatic black bears being rehabilitated after they were taken from bile farms.…”

Maternal Behavior and Infant Congenital Limb Malformation in a Free-Ranging Group of Macaca fuscata on Awaji Island, Japan

“…Then, over the first months of life, the infant moves to dorsal riding with increasing frequency (Hiraiwa, 1981). In studies on Macaca fuscata infants with CLM Nakamichi (1986;Nakamichi et al, 1983) and his colleagues documented routine use of a third infant carrying position, the behavioral category that we have labeled support-carry. Mothers of disabled infants that have difficulty clinging will use an arm to carry the infant against their ventral area while locomoting on their remaining limbs.…”

“…• Hold infant Definition: the mother uses her hand(s) and/or arm(s) to brace the infant's back or ventrum, keeping the infant within her ventral area. (Nakamichi et al, 1983) • General contact • Total carry Includes: dorsal carry, ventral carry, support-carry…”

“…The Awajishima Monkey Center has reported the highest incidence of the limb malformations in Japan. However, since the first observed case in 1955, the phenomenon has been reported in many other macaque populations across the country (Furuya, 1966;Homma, 1980;Itani et al, 1963;Iwamoto, 1967;Iwamoto and Hirai, 1970;Minezawa et al, 1990;Nakamichi, 1986;Nakamichi et al, 1983Nakamichi et al, , 1997Tanaka and Nigi, 1967). Yoshihiro et al (1979) found that disabled individuals were present in 22 of the 69 captive, free-ranging provisioned, and wild groups surveyed.…”