Betrayal and revictimization: Preliminary findings.

Abstract

The link between childhood sexual abuse and subsequent sexual, emotional, and physical revictimization has been widely reported. The literature is limited, however, in its exploration of the extent to which the level of betrayal inherent in a given childhood traumatic experience affects the likelihood of experiencing similar revictimization in adolescence and adulthood. This study assessed revictimization within a betrayal trauma framework among a sample of 271 college students. As predicted, individuals who reported experiencing high-betrayal trauma at any time point (childhood, adolescence, or adulthood) were more likely to report experiences of trauma high in betrayal during adolescence and adulthood. Relative risk ratios suggest that those who experience childhood trauma high in betrayal are 4.31 times more likely to be victimized in adolescence and 5.44 times more likely to be victimized in adulthood. Logistic regression analyses identified rate of childhood high-betrayal traumas and high levels of traumatic symptoms as significant predictors of high-betrayal trauma victimization in adolescence. Finally, participants' responses to an exploratory self-report measure examining the relationship among revictimization, awareness for interpersonal betrayals, and response to betrayals in interpersonal contexts were analyzed. Preliminary findings indicate that revictimization risk may be linked to inaccurate identification of specific intimate partner betrayals and the inability to engage in proper self-protection. Suggestions for future research and clinical implications are discussed.Keywords: revictimization, childhood sexual abuse, trauma, betrayal, trustThe formation of healthy intimate relationships involves a willingness to trust others, a secure sense of self in relation to others, a good balance of reliance on and independence from the other, and the ability to appropriately regulate emotions in the face of conflict (Cole & Putnam, 1992). Adaptive social functioning in interpersonal relationships is based on a good conceptualization of appropriate and inappropriate behaviors as well as the ability to feel comfortable communicating personal boundaries and, when necessary, avoid or withdraw from relationships that may be emotionally, physically, or sexually harmful (Cole & Putnam, 1992;DePrince, 2005). The collection of harmful long-term consequences associated with childhood sexual abuse may render survivors vulnerable to involvement in unhealthy interpersonal relationships and, thus, vulnerable to later revictimization. RevictimizationOne of the most disturbing consequences of childhood sexual abuse is the increased likelihood for survivors to be maltreated sexually, physically, or psychologically during adolescence and adulthood. Various researchers have reported a link between the experience of childhood sexual abuse and increased vulnerability for physical, sexual, or emotional abuse in adulthood (Cloitre, Tardiff, Marzuk, Leon, & Potrea, 1996;Mayall & Gold, 1995;Merrill et al., 1999;Messman & Long, 19...

The impact of betrayal trauma on the tendency to trust.

“…For example, it might be possible to identify particular periods when developing beliefs about trust are most vulnerable to damage by HBT. Previous research (e.g., Gobin & Freyd, 2009) has suggested that individuals who experience HBT during adolescence have the highest risk for future victimization, thus, adolescence may be an optimal period of development during which to intervene on impaired trust and betrayal awareness. Such methods may also enhance our understanding of how deficits in trust create risk for revictimization, in addition to informing intervention methods.…”

“…The child's ability to detect the trustworthiness of others may be impaired due to betrayal blindness, thus increasing risk of revictimization (Gobin & Freyd, 2009). In addition to disrupting the ability to make wise decisions about the trustworthiness of others, betrayed children may end up with a general bias such that they are either overly trusting adults or, alternatively, they are unwilling to trust others, even those they should.…”

Experience of a Lifetime: Study Abroad, Trauma, and Institutional Betrayal

“…The most salient example is betrayal blindness, the phenomenon of conscious unawareness that occurs when a trusted or depended-upon other perpetrates abuse (Freyd, 1994(Freyd, , 1997. Such blindness can range from minor (as in the willingness to ignore signs a partner is unfaithful) to extreme (such as total memory absence for instances of physical or sexual abuse; Gobin & Freyd, 2009). It may seem counterintuitive that one would create psychic mechanisms to ignore a source of danger, but individuals are often unable to (or perceive themselves to be unable to) leave the abusive situation (e.g., a child, or a partner with children and no income source).…”

Collusion, torture, and inequality: Understanding the actions of the American Psychological Association as institutional betrayal

“…Substantial empirical support exists for BTT, suggesting that betrayal is a fundamental aspect of psychological trauma (e.g., Kelley, Weathers, Mason, & Pruneau, 2012). For instance, exposure to betrayal trauma has been associated with elevated posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity (Kelley et al, 2012); impaired cheater detector abilities (DePrince, 2005); physical health symptoms (Freyd, Klest, & Allard, 2005); depression, anxiety, panic, anger, and poor health functioning (Edwards, Freyd, Dube, Anda, & Felitti, 2012); suicidality (Edwards et al, 2012;Gómez & Freyd, 2013); hallucinations (Gómez & Freyd, 2016;Gómez, Kaehler, & Freyd, 2014); elevated rates of revictimization (DePrince, 2005;Gobin & Freyd, 2009); and intergenerational trauma (Hulette, Kaehler, & Freyd, 2011).…”