Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight.

Abstract

The human stress response has been characterized, both physiologically and behaviorally, as "fight-or-flight." Although fight-or-flight may characterize the primary physiological responses to stress for both males and females, we propose that, behaviorally, females' responses are more marked by a pattern of "tend-and-befriend." Tending involves nurturant activities designed to protect the self and offspring that promote safety and reduce distress; befriending is the creation and maintenance of social networks that may aid in this process. The biobehavioral mechanism that underlies the tend-and-befriend pattern appears to draw on the attachment-caregiving system, and neuroendocrine evidence from animal and human studies suggests that oxytocin, in conjunction with female reproductive hormones and endogenous opioid peptide mechanisms, may be at its core. This previously unexplored stress regulatory system has manifold implications for the study of stress.

Focused grooming networks and stress alleviation in wild female baboons

“…It has long been known that humans and other animals rely on social affiliation when under stress (Sapolsky et al 1997;Carter 1998;Panskepp 1998). The pituitary hormone oxytocin, which can be released by physical contact and affiliation, plays an important role in affiliationmediated stress reduction, and this effect is particularly pronounced in females (reviewed by Taylor et al 2000). In humans, women show a greater desire than men to seek social contact during times of stress, and they are also more likely to turn to smaller support groups (Taylor et al 2000).…”

“…The pituitary hormone oxytocin, which can be released by physical contact and affiliation, plays an important role in affiliationmediated stress reduction, and this effect is particularly pronounced in females (reviewed by Taylor et al 2000). In humans, women show a greater desire than men to seek social contact during times of stress, and they are also more likely to turn to smaller support groups (Taylor et al 2000). In both sexes, the number of 'core' individuals on whom people rely for support during times of crisis (3-5 individuals) tends to be significantly smaller than their circle of mutual friends (12-20) or regular acquaintances (30-50) (Dunbar & Spoor 1995;Hill & Dunbar 2003;Zhou et al 2005).…”

Oxytocin and Epstein‐Barr virus: Stress biomarkers in the postpartum period among first‐time mothers from São Paulo, Brazil

“…Taylor and colleagues have suggested that the anxiolytic effect of OT upon the HPA axis constitutes an alternate pathway to 'fight or flight', which they have dubbed the "tend and befriend" response (Taylor et al, 2000;Taylor, 2006). This response promotes affiliative and social behaviour in response to stressful circumstances (Boutet et al, 2006;Engelmann et al, 2004;Lippert et al, 2003), maximising fitness through care (or 'tending') of offspring or others during periods of stress.…”

Combining oxytocin administration and positive emotion inductions: Examining social perception and analytical performance

“…For example, some neuroendocrine products, such as the neuropeptide oxytocin (OT), may have positive effects on social behavior (e.g., Taylor et al, 2000;Zak et al, 2007). Further, there is evidence that experiencing positive emotions can improve a range of perceptual and performancebased behaviors (Fredrickson, 2001;Isen, 2000).…”

“…OT is a neurohypophyseal hormone that plays a role in social interactions and bonding (Taylor et al, 2000;Zak et al, 2007). Initial work on OT administration suggested that it may promote more positive social behavior, such as greater trust and generosity (Kosfeld et al, 2005;Zak et al, 2007), and more accurate social perception (Bartz et al, 2010a;Domes et al, 2007;Guastella et al, 2010).…”