Biological and Chemical Processes that Lead to Textile Malodour Development

Abstract

The development of malodour on clothing is a well-known problem with social, economic and ecological consequences. Many people still think malodour is the result of a lack of hygiene, which causes social stigma and embarrassment. Clothing is washed more frequently due to odour formation or even discarded when permastink develops. The malodour formation process is impacted by many variables and processes throughout the textile lifecycle. The contact with the skin with consequent transfer of microorganisms, volatiles and odour precursors leads to the formation of a distinctive textile microbiome and volatilome. The washing and drying processes further shape the textile microbiome and impact malodour formation. These processes are impacted by interindividual differences and fabric type as well. This review describes the current knowledge on the volatilome and microbiome of the skin, textile and washing machine, the multiple factors that determine malodour formation on textiles and points out what information is still missing.

Human Skin Microbiome: Impact of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors on Skin Microbiota

“…Skin-to-clothing contact is also of importance, which leads to the transmission of microorganisms and the formation of the so-called textile and volatile microbiome. In turn, the composition of the fabric microbiome is affected by washing and drying [ 99 ]. Microorganisms that adhere to fibers can use dirt or sebum compounds as a substrate and produce volatile substances as by-products, contributing to unpleasant odors [ 100 , 101 ].…”

Smells Like Teen Spirit—A Model to Generate Laundry-Associated Malodour In Vitro

“…Malodour formation in domestic laundry has become a relevant problem for many consumers, especially since wash temperatures have steadily decreased [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Although there are several types of odours that can be associated with textiles [ 5 ], this study focuses on the “wet-and-dirty-dustcloth-like” or “wet fabric” malodour [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. This problem may occur with laundry when it is hung to dry indoors or even with textiles that have already been dried and stored in damp conditions [ 3 , 6 , 8 ].…”

“…Multiple factors have been shown to impact the formation of malodour. Apart from human skin and clothing, the washing machine can be considered an important source of water-borne bacteria [ 5 ], whereas human skin serves as a reservoir for several members of the transient and resident skin microbiota. Some studies report microbial counts on textiles of up to 10 6 cfu/cm 2 , mainly comprising the genera Staphylococcus , Corynebacterium, and the group Betaproteobacteria [ 9 , 10 , 11 ].…”

Metatranscriptomic Analysis of Bacterial Communities on Laundered Textiles: A Pilot Case Study

“…While this and other structural studies have looked at the microbial community composition of washing machines and laundry items [ 3 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ], studies on the metabolic activities of the laundry microbiota are often limited to distinct functionalities, such as the formation and prevention of malodor [ 2 , 15 , 16 ]. Malodor is often associated with a lack of hygiene, and can negatively affect the life cycle of a textile [ 17 ].…”