Biomimicked hierarchical 2D and 3D structures from natural templates: applications in cell biology

Abstract

Intricate structures of natural surfaces and materials have amazed people over the ages. The unique properties of various surfaces also created interest and curiosity in researchers. In the recent past, with the advent of superior microscopy techniques, we have started to understand how these complex structures provide superior properties. With that knowledge, scientists have developed various biomimicked and bio-inspired surfaces for different non-biological applications. In the last two decades, we have also started to learn how structures of the tissue microenvironment influence cell function and behaviour, both in physiological and pathological conditions. Hence, it became essential to decipher the role and importance of structural hierarchy in the cellular context. With advances in microfabricated techniques, such complex structures were made by superimposing features of different dimensions. However, the fabricated topographies are far from matching the complexities present in vivo. Hence, the need of biomimicking the natural surfaces for cellular applications was felt. In this review, we discuss a few examples of hierarchical surfaces found in plants, insects, and vertebrates. Such structures have been widely biomimicked for various applications but rarely studied for cell-substrate interaction and cellular response. Here, we discuss the research work wherein 2D hierarchical substrates were prepared using biomimicking to understand cellular functions such as adhesion, orientation, differentiation, and formation of spheroids. Further, we also present the status of ongoing research in mimicking 3D tissue architecture using de-cellularized plant-based and tissue/organ-based scaffolds. We will also discuss 3D printing for fabricating 2D and 3D hierarchical structures. The review will end by highlighting the various advantages and research challenges in this approach. The biomimicked in-vivo like substrate can be used to better understand cellular physiology, and for tissue engineering.

Celery‐derived scaffolds with liver lobule‐mimicking structures for tissue engineering transplantation

“…Thus, this celery-derived scaffold is very promising, which can be expected to have great prospects in tissue engineering transplantation. [30][31][32]…”

“…Moreover, the in vivo compatibility of the celery stem‐derived scaffold was also confirmed through specific ectopic transplantation. Thus, this celery‐derived scaffold is very promising, which can be expected to have great prospects in tissue engineering transplantation 30–32 …”

Graphene oxide encapsulated forsterite scaffolds to improve mechanical properties and antibacterial behavior

“…Very large macrosheets, such as 20-100 micrometers (larger than most cells), may pose a risk, for example, by using a similar 'wrapping/ encapsulation' of those bacteria, causing a nutrient deprivation. That being said, given the limited mobility of the sheet, owing to the covalent or electrostatic layers of the substrates, free-floating sheets are impossible [55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70]. Therefore, the risk of high-risk penetration and cell adsorption of nanoparticles or large film wrapping (e.g.…”

A Study on Dual-Response Composite Hydrogels Based on Oriented Nanocellulose

“…The polymer networks of CNs hydrogels are generally uniform and isotropic. Although traditional CNs hydrogels can achieve a high degree of biomimetic composition, they lack the ability to mimic the complex structure of biological tissues, for example, well-ordered structures[ 13 ]. Recently, several well-ordered hydrogels have been synthesized through directional freezing[ 14 , 15 ], electrostatic repulsion[ 16 ], magnetic methods[ 17 ], stain- or compression-induced reorientation[ 18 ], and self-assembly[ 19 ].…”