“…Europe is considered to be based on universal values and norms including democracy and human rights, instead of rigid cultural, religious and historic qualities ( Arkan, 2016 ; Aydın-Düzgit, 2006 ; Balkır & Eylemer, 2016 ; Gülmez, 2008 ; Müftüler-Baç, 2005 ; Oğuzlu & Kibaroğlu, 2009 ; Öniş, 2010 ). Similarly, ‘Europeanness’ is largely associated with ‘democracy’, ‘democratic consolidation’ and ‘reform’ ( Alpan, 2015 ). Europe is also viewed as having a potential to become a post-national polity dependent upon Europeans’ ability to accept Turkey as an equal partner ( Aydın & Keyman, 2004 ; Baban & Keyman, 2008 ).…”