Bound within boundaries: Do protected areas cover movement corridors of their most mobile, protected species?

Abstract

1. Conserving and managing large portions of land to connect wildlife reserves is an increasingly used strategy to maintain and restore connectivity among wildlife populations. Boundaries of such conservation areas are often determined based on expert opinion and socio-political constraints, yet the extent to which they match species' movement corridors is rarely examined. This is mainly due to a lack of data, particularly on wide-ranging movement behaviour such as dispersal.Nevertheless, empirically assessing the adequacy of protected areas is key for the implementation of targeted management actions and efficient use of limited conservation funds. Between 2011 and 2019, we collected high-resolution GPS data on 16 dispersingAfrican wild dog Lycaon pictus coalitions from a free-ranging population in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA-TFCA). Spanning five countries and 520,000 km 2 , the KAZA-TFCA is the world's largest transboundary conservation area and a prime example for international conservation efforts. We used integrated step selection analysis to estimate habitat selection of dispersers and to create a permeability surface for the KAZA-TFCA. We compared landscape permeability across different regions within the KAZA-TFCA as well as outside its boundaries. Lastly, we calculated least-cost paths and corridors to verify that major movement routes were adequately encompassed within the KAZA-TFCA.3. Permeability within the boundaries of the KAZA-TFCA was more than double compared to areas outside it. Furthermore, we observed a fivefold permeability difference among the five KAZA-TFCA countries. We also showed that major movement corridors of wild dogs ran within the KAZA-TFCA, although some minor routes remained formally unprotected. 4. Differences in permeability were mainly related to different degrees of human activities across regions, and to the presence or absence of rivers, swamps and open water. The relationship between permeability and other landscape features was less pronounced. Synthesis and applications.In this study, we showed how pertinent dispersal data of a highly mobile species can be used to empirically evaluate the adequacy of

Long‐distance African wild dog dispersal within the Kavango‐Zambezi transfrontier conservation area

“…During dispersal, FEMALE146.02 did not cross the Zambezi River and crossed one highway three times (Botswana's A33) (Figure 1). Dispersing wild dogs avoid large water bodies and human infrastructures (Cozzi et al, 2020; Hofmann et al, 2021), which may be dispersal barriers. During transience, the majority of FEMALE146.02 fixes were in wildlife‐designated areas, while 30% were in non‐protected areas (Table 1).…”

“…During transience, the majority of FEMALE146.02 fixes were in wildlife‐designated areas, while 30% were in non‐protected areas (Table 1). This is testament to the high permeability of the KAZA‐TFCA to wildlife movements, which consists of ~70% intact protected natural habitat (Hofmann et al, 2021; KAZA TFCA, 2015), and the area's importance in facilitating dispersal, and therewith gene flow, between wildlife populations (Brennan et al, 2020; Elliot et al, 2014; Hofmann et al, 2021). Wild dogs are a strong indicator species for connectivity across the KAZA‐TFCA (Brennan et al, 2020), as such, the dispersal described here can assist in locating and protecting more wildlife dispersal areas within the KAZA‐TFCA (Munthali et al, 2018), and confirms the significance of international transboundary conservation efforts.…”

Modelling Multi-Species Connectivity at the Kafue-Zambezi Interface: Implications for Transboundary Carnivore Conservation

“…Yet, with the boundaries of many TFCAs drawn in accordance with subjective, socio-political priorities, much work remains in order to understand and implement management strategies that will better serve the movement requirements of target species given limited resources [13]. A recent study by Hoffman et al [14] demonstrates the need for planning at transboundary scale for restoring connectivity and landscape permeability for highly mobile species.…”

Spatial genetic patterns in African wild dogs reveal signs of effective dispersal across southern Africa

“…However, the survival rate of dispersers is often very low (Creel and Creel, 2002), and gene flow resulting from dispersal may be reduced, also likely because of the wild dogs' cooperative breeding system (Creel and Creel, 2002). Furthermore, low occupancy rates yield fewer opportunities for the formation of new packs (Hofmann et al, 2021). Altogether, this may cause the apparent decrease in effective gene flow towards the southeast.…”

“…Genetic structuring, presumed to have resulted from anthropogenic habitat fragmentation, has already been illustrated in wild dogs, as well as a loss of genetic diversity across their range (Girman et al, 2001;Marsden et al, 2012). In southern Africa, natural dispersal appears ongoing in northern Botswana and western Zimbabwe (Cozzi et al, 2020;Hofmann et al, 2021) across an area that stretches from the Okavango Delta to Hwange NP (Figure 1). These reserves are part of the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA-TFCA), which was created to allow free movement of wildlife to enlarge effective distribution range and enhance metapopulation dynamics (Fynn and Bonyongo, 2011).…”