Bronze Age Copper Sources in the Mediterranean: A New Approach

Gale, N. H.; Stos-Gale, Zofia

doi:10.1126/science.216.4541.11

Cited by 179 publications

(97 citation statements)

References 19 publications

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“…In 1982, the first results of lead isotope analysis of copper-based artefacts were published (Gale and Stos-Gale 1982). By that time, we had already started a wide ranging collaboration with the Greek Geological Service (Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration (IGME)) and Aegean archaeologists from Europe and the USA.…”

Section: The Interpretation Of Lead Isotope Analyses For Provenance Smentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This began in Oxford with studies of the sources of lead and silver for the Bronze Age Aegean (e.g., Gale 1980;Gale and Stos-Gale 1981a, b;Gale et al 1984). As Rehren and Pernicka (2008, 238) have written "The breakthrough in provenancing by isotope ratios came with the extension of lead isotope analysis to copper and copperbased alloys (Gale and Stos-Gale 1982). By the combination of lead isotope ratios and trace element patterns it became possible, for the first time, to relate with high probability metal artefacts to specific ore deposits, something that had been aimed at for more than 100 years.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Metal provenancing using isotopes and the Oxford archaeological lead isotope database (OXALID)

Stos-Gale¹,

Gale²

2009

Archaeol Anthropol Sci

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227

102

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This paper reviews the research into the methodology of lead isotope provenance studies carried out at the University of Oxford between 1975 and, at first in the Department of Geology (Geological Age and Isotope Research Laboratory), later in the Isotrace Laboratory based in the Department of Nuclear Physics, and eventually part of the Research Laboratory of Archaeology and the History of Art. These 27 years of intensive work, funded initially by the Stiftung Volkswagenwerk, and later from numerous UK Government and Charitable funds and finally by the Institute of Aegean Prehistory laid the foundations of the lead isotope provenance methodology and resulted in a large database of analytical isotope and elemental results. In spite of the efforts of the authors, this database is still not comprehensively published or easily accessible in a digital format by all researchers interested in using this method for their projects. The possibilities of advancing this situation are discussed. The authors discuss in detail the basic restrictions and advantages of using the lead isotope compositions of ores in mineral deposits for finding the origin of the raw materials used for making ancient artefacts. Methods for the scientific interpretation of the data are discussed, including attempts to use statistical methods. The methodology of creating the Oxford lead isotope database (OXALID) is outlined and a summary is given of the lead isotope resource provided by OXALID.

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Section: The Interpretation Of Lead Isotope Analyses For Provenance Smentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Metal provenancing using isotopes and the Oxford archaeological lead isotope database (OXALID)

Stos-Gale¹,

Gale²

2009

Archaeol Anthropol Sci

Self Cite

227

102

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

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“…This matrix-matched Cu solution was prepared taking into account the minimum Cu content and the maximum concentration levels for other elements present in bronzes according to literature [4,9,16,27] and showed a final composition of 500 mgL −1 Cu, 120 mgL −1 Sn, 82 mgL −1 Pb, 37 mgL −1 Zn, and 15 mgL −1 Fe. Additionally, 500 mg L −1 Ni was added as internal standard for mass bias correction.…”

Section: Isolation Of the Target Elementsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Isotopic analysis, in particular, is a very powerful tool for discrimination purposes and for provenance studies and is therefore presently replacing and/or complementing the more traditional multi-element analysis in the context of archaeometry [1][2][3]. Owing to the introduction of multi-collector inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) instruments, the interest for isotopic analysis has grown considerably, not only for elements with radiogenic nuclides (such as Pb, Sr, or Nd) [3], for which larger isotopic variations are observed in nature, but also for "non-traditional" stable isotopic systems (such as those of Cu or Sn), showing smaller variation, mainly due to mass-dependent isotope fractionation [4][5][6][7][8]. At this point, systematic studies are still needed to fully assess the possibilities of these nontraditional isotopic systems in the field of archaeometry, starting from optimization of the analytical methodology, at a later stage deployed for trying to relate the isotopic information to, e.g., geographical origin of raw materials, mining activities, manufacturing technology, and/or trade routes [9,10].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Copper and tin isotopic analysis of ancient bronzes for archaeological investigation: development and validation of a suitable analytical methodology

et al. 2012

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Although in many cases Pb isotopic analysis can be relied on for provenance determination of ancient bronzes, sometimes the use of "non-traditional" isotopic systems, such as those of Cu and Sn, is required. The work reported on in this paper aimed at revising the methodology for Cu and Sn isotope ratio measurements in archaeological bronzes via optimization of the analytical procedures in terms of sample pre-treatment, measurement protocol, precision, and analytical uncertainty. For Cu isotopic analysis, both Zn and Ni were investigated for their merit as internal standard (IS) relied on for mass bias correction. The use of Ni as IS seems to be the most robust approach as Ni is less prone to contamination, has a lower abundance in bronzes and an ionization potential similar to that of Cu, and provides slightly better reproducibility values when applied to NIST SRM 976 Cu isotopic reference material. The possibility of carrying out direct isotopic analysis without prior Cu isolation (with AG-MP-1 anion exchange resin) was investigated by analysis of CRM IARM 91D bronze reference material, synthetic solutions, and archaeological bronzes. Both procedures (Cu isolation/no Cu isolation) provide similar δ 65 Cu results with similar uncertainty budgets in all cases (±0.02-0.04 per mil in delta units, k02, n0 4). Direct isotopic analysis of Cu therefore seems feasible, without evidence of spectral interference or matrix-induced effect on the extent of mass bias. For Sn, a separation protocol relying on TRU-Spec anion exchange resin was optimized, providing a recovery close to 100 % without oncolumn fractionation. Cu was recovered quantitatively together with the bronze matrix with this isolation protocol. Isotopic analysis of this Cu fraction provides δ 65 Cu results similar to those obtained upon isolation using AG-MP-1 resin. This means that Cu and Sn isotopic analysis of bronze alloys can therefore be carried out after a single chromatographic separation using TRU-Spec resin. Tin isotopic analysis was performed relying on Sb as an internal standard used for mass bias correction. The reproducibility over a period of 1 month (n042) for the mass bias-corrected Sn isotope ratios is in the range of 0.06-0.16 per mil (2 s), for all the ratios monitored.

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“…As well, we initiate a small set of experiments to show that iron isotope ratios in pigments do not change when fired. We follow the lead of other recent studies exploring the stable isotope ratios of tin and lead in ancient weapons, coins, and sacred objects such as the Gundestrup cauldron (Gale and Stos-Gale 1982;Gale et al 1999;Nielsen et al 2005;Haustein et al 2010;Klein et al 2010). These methods use the significant natural variations in isotopes observed in ore minerals.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%