“…After nearly two decades of research, it is now generally accepted that mechanical damage of freely suspended cells is due to bubble hydrodynamics, in particular the bubble-bursting phenomena at the headspace gas-liquid interface (Handa et al, 1987;Tramper et al, 1987;Handa-Corrigan et al, 1989;Oh et al, 1989Oh et al, , 1992Chalmers and Bavarian, 1991;Kioukia et al, 1992;Meier et al, 1999). Four bubble-liquid-cell regions where cell damage can occur can be identified: (1) bubble formation at the sparger, (2) bubble coalescence and breakup in the impeller discharge, (3) bubble rise through the bioreactor, and (4) bubble bursting at the air-medium interface.…”