Burden of the typhoid fever and cholera: similarities and differences. Prevention strategies for international travelers to endemic/epidemic areas.

Holistic One Health Surveillance Framework: Synergizing Environmental, Animal, and Human Determinants for Enhanced Infectious Disease Management

“…This can be exacerbated by conflicts or natural disasters that disrupt water, sanitation, and healthcare systems . Cholera and typhoid fever are prime examples of water-borne diseases that have caused devastating outbreaks and epidemics throughout history . Having secure and sufficient access to water is crucial for maintaining hygiene practices.…”

“…Ensuring access to clean drinking water and appropriate sanitation amenities plays a paramount role in averting water-borne illnesses such as cholera and typhoid . Globally, over 2 billion people depend on drinking water contaminated with fecal matter, posing a risk for diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and polio .…”

Comparative Analysis of Commercially Available Typhoid Point-of-Care Tests: Results of a Prospective and Hybrid Retrospective Multicenter Diagnostic Accuracy Study in Kenya and Pakistan

“…Symptoms include prolonged fever, fatigue, headache, nausea, abdominal pain, constipation or diarrhea, with severe cases leading to serious complications and even death. In 2018, it was reported that 11 to 20 million people worldwide contract typhoid each year, resulting in 128,000 to 161,000 deaths ( 2 ).…”

“…Because of the primary mode of transmission, typhoid cases are most prevalent in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water—most commonly low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) ( 2 ). Of these, the regions of endemicity with the highest incidence of typhoid are sub-Saharan Africa (accounting for 40% of all cases), South Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East ( 2 ).…”

“…Because of the primary mode of transmission, typhoid cases are most prevalent in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water—most commonly low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) ( 2 ). Of these, the regions of endemicity with the highest incidence of typhoid are sub-Saharan Africa (accounting for 40% of all cases), South Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East ( 2 ). While the disease can be effectively treated with antibiotics, escalating global antimicrobial resistance, including the emergence of extensively drug-resistant S. Typhi in Pakistan and azithromycin-resistant S. Typhi in multiple countries, indicates that short- to medium-term control of typhoid through vaccination may be the best strategy for reducing disease burden in endemic populations ( 3 , 4 ).…”