Cadence Modulation in Walking and Running: Pacing Steps or Strides?

Abstract

A change in cadence during walking or running might be indicated for a variety of reasons, among which mobility improvement and injury prevention. In a within-subject study design, we examined whether walking or running cadences are modulated best by means of step-based or stride-based auditory pacing. Sixteen experienced runners walked and ran on a treadmill while synchronizing with step-based and stride-based pacing at slow, preferred and fast pacing frequencies in synchronization-perturbation and synchronization-continuation conditions. We quantified the variability of the relative phase between pacing cues and footfalls and the responses to perturbations in the pacing signal as measures of coordinative stability; the more stable the auditory-motor coordination, the stronger the modulating effect of pacing. Furthermore, we quantified the deviation from the prescribed cadence after removal of the pacing signal as a measure of internalization of this cadence. Synchronization was achieved less often in running, especially at slow pacing frequencies. If synchronization was achieved, coordinative stability was similar, and the paced cadence was well internalized for preferred and fast pacing frequencies. Step-based pacing led to more stable auditory-motor coordination than stride-based pacing in both walking and running. We therefore concluded that step-based auditory pacing deserves preference as a means to modulate cadence in walking and running.

Instructed versus spontaneous entrainment of running cadence to music tempo

“…These results are consistent with previous results on walking behavior, demonstrating that instructing participants to move to the beat elicited slower and shorter strides than when instruction was absent 33 . They are also in accordance with earlier findings indicating that, when compared with stride‐based pacing, step‐based pacing leads to more stable auditory–motor coordination in both walking and running 52 . Consequently, although a number of studies demonstrated that auditory–motor coupling improved performance in motor tasks, 11,12,18 our findings suggest that entrainment as such does not necessarily speed up recreational runners or lengthen their steps, as this seems to depend on the presence/absence of instruction.…”

“…33 They are also in accordance with earlier findings indicating that, when compared with stride-based pacing, step-based pacing leads to more stable auditory-motor coordination in both walking and running. 52 Consequently, although a number of studies demonstrated that auditory-motor coupling improved performance in motor tasks, 11,12,18 our findings suggest that entrainment as such does not necessarily speed up recreational runners or lengthen their steps, as this seems to depend on the presence/absence of instruction. The fact that instructed entrainment did not lead to an increase in speed and step length, whereas spontaneous entrainment did, might be related to the idea that instruction results in more goal-directed behavior, as such directing the focus to the achievement of entrainment and suppressing possible arousal effects caused by the auditory accompaniment.…”

Reliability and Validity of Running Cadence and Stance Time Derived from Instrumented Wireless Earbuds

“…Second, real-time feedback of gait parameters such as cadence and contact times derived from inertial sensors is often provided visually on a watch, looking at which interferes with running [ 15 , 22 ]. Auditory instructions or feedback on gait parameters, for example through auditory pacing [ 23 ] or sonification [ 24 , 25 ], is therefore preferable [ 26 ]. Third, previous research indicated that runners dislike carrying their phone and would prefer using an all-in-one device [ 16 ].…”

Adapting Footfall Rhythmicity to Auditory Perturbations Affects Resilience of Locomotor Behavior: A Proof-of-Concept Study

“…The magnitude of perturbations to the auditory stimuli used in the majority of published literature to date has been selected somewhat arbitrarily and discordantly: phase shifts of 50 ms ( Chen et al, 2006 ); 60° ( Roerdink et al, 2009 ; Nijs et al, 2020 ); 100 ms ( Wright et al, 2014 ); and 15% of step cycle ( Khan et al, 2020 ). In the present study, we perturbed the metronome cues based on each individual’s step time variability (measured in standard deviations).…”

“…Importantly, the extent to which footfall rhythm influences stability may also depend on the rhythm perception ability of the participants [instructing poor rhythm perceivers to synchronize could incur instability ( Ready et al, 2019 )] and the magnitude of perturbations ( Dotov et al, 2019 ). As more studies including rhythm perturbations are now emerging ( Krasovsky et al, 2013 ; Wright et al, 2017 ; Geerse et al, 2020 ; Khan et al, 2020 ; Nijs et al, 2020 ), it is timely to identify the governing principles and detail the involvement of dynamic stability during movement adaptation to rhythm perturbations: hence addressing the fundamental question of how footfall rhythmicity interacts with whole-body balance during walking.…”