Calcium oxychloride: A critical review of the literature surrounding the formation, deterioration, testing procedures, and recommended mitigation techniques

Jones, Casey; Ramanathan, Sivakumar; Suraneni, Prannoy; Hale, William

doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2020.103663

Cited by 40 publications

(27 citation statements)

References 65 publications

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“…The deterioration is caused in part by freeze-thaw and in part due to the formation of a deleterious phase known as calcium oxychloride. This phase forms from a reaction between calcium chloride (CaCl2) or magnesium chloride (MgCl2) deicers and calcium hydroxide in the concrete [1][2][3]8,9]. As the intensity of deicing and the use of stronger deicers such as CaCl2 and MgCl2 increases, it stands to reason that the incidence of such deterioration will increase [10].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Synergistic effects of air content and supplementary cementitious materials in reducing damage caused by calcium oxychloride formation in concrete

Hosseinzadeh

Suraneni

2021

Cement and Concrete Composites

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Pavement damage occurs in cold-region concrete exposed to high concentrations of calcium chloride (CaCl2). The damage is caused by a combination of conventional freeze-thaw damage and the formation of a deleterious phase known as calcium oxychloride from a reaction between CaCl2 and calcium hydroxide in the concrete. Much research has focused on calcium oxychloride mitigation in cement pastes, but not on concrete damage due to calcium oxychloride.In this study, the synergistic roles of air and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in reducing damage in concrete exposed to high concentrations of CaCl2 and freeze-thaw conditions is studied. Concrete mixtures were made with different SCM replacement levels and air contents ranging from 1.8 to 8.0% and immersed in 25% CaCl2 solutions and subject to freeze-thaw cycles (-8 °C to 25 °C) for 600 days. Bulk resistivity and visual assessment of damage were found to be excellent descriptors of the damage progression. Damage was reduced as the SCM content and air content was increased. Mixtures which had 20% SCM and 8% air and mixtures which had 35% SCM and more than 4% air showed strong durability against damage due to calcium oxychloride formation.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Synergistic effects of air content and supplementary cementitious materials in reducing damage caused by calcium oxychloride formation in concrete

Hosseinzadeh

Suraneni

2021

Cement and Concrete Composites

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“…Interestingly, self-heating concrete mixtures are being tested as an alternative to applying road salts for deicing (Farnam et al 2017). Another experimental approach is the use of Sporosarcina pasteuria bacteria to reduce the formation of calcium oxychloride when CaCl in road salt reacts with the calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2 in concrete (Jones et al 2020). These bacteria, commonly found in soil, convert nutrients and Ca into CaCO 3 or calcite, thereby reducing the corrosion potential of the road salt.…”

Section: Alternatives To Sodium Chloride To Manage Fss On Roadwaysmentioning

confidence: 99%

Freshwater salinization syndrome: from emerging global problem to managing risks

et al. 2021

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Freshwater salinization is an emerging global problem impacting safe drinking water, ecosystem health and biodiversity, infrastructure corrosion, and food production. Freshwater salinization originates from diverse anthropogenic and geologic sources including road salts, human-accelerated weathering, sewage, urban construction, fertilizer, mine drainage, resource extraction, water softeners, saltwater intrusion, and evaporative concentration of ions due to hydrologic alterations and climate change. The complex interrelationships between salt ions and chemical, biological, and geologic parameters and consequences on the natural, social, and built environment are called Freshwater Salinization Syndrome (FSS). Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of salinization issues (past, present, and future), and we investigate drivers and solutions. We analyze the expanding global magnitude and scope of FSS including its discovery in humid regions, connections to human-accelerated weathering and mobilization of ‘chemical cocktails.’ We also present data illustrating: (1) increasing trends in salt ion concentrations in some of the world’s major freshwaters, including critical drinking water supplies; (2) decreasing trends in nutrient concentrations in rivers due to regulations but increasing trends in salinization, which have been due to lack of adequate management and regulations; (3) regional trends in atmospheric deposition of salt ions and storage of salt ions in soils and groundwater, and (4) applications of specific conductance as a proxy for tracking sources and concentrations of groups of elements in freshwaters. We prioritize FSS research needs related to better understanding: (1) effects of saltwater intrusion on ecosystem processes, (2) potential health risks from groundwater contamination of home wells, (3) potential risks to clean and safe drinking water sources, (4) economic and safety impacts of infrastructure corrosion, (5) alteration of biodiversity and ecosystem functions, and (6) application of high-frequency sensors in state-of-the art monitoring and management. We evaluate management solutions using a watershed approach spanning air, land, and water to explore variations in sources, fate and transport of different salt ions (e.g. monitoring of atmospheric deposition of ions, stormwater management, groundwater remediation, and managing road runoff). We also identify tradeoffs in management approaches such as unanticipated retention and release of chemical cocktails from urban stormwater management best management practices (BMPs) and unintended consequences of alternative deicers on water quality. Overall, we show that FSS has direct and indirect effects on mobilization of diverse chemical cocktails of ions, metals, nutrients, organics, and radionuclides in freshwaters with mounting impacts. Our comprehensive review suggests what could happen if FSS were not managed into the future and evaluates strategies for reducing increasing risks to clean and safe drinking water, human health, costly infrastructure, biodiversity, and critical ecosystem services.

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“…Oxychlorides have unique properties due to their structure anisotropy. Many different oxychlorides, such as BiOCl, CaOCl 2 , FeOCl, CuOCl, and ZnOC, have recently been synthesized and tested, especially for use as photocatalysts [1][2][3][4] . Metal oxychloride materials have been investigated because of their chemical stability and their ability to form 2D and 3D nanostructures 2,5,6 .…”

Section: Broadband Dielectric Spectroscopy For Monitoring Temperaturementioning

confidence: 99%

Broadband dielectric spectroscopy for monitoring temperature-dependent chloride ion motion in BiOCl plates

Radoń

Łukowiec

Włodarczyk

2020

Sci Rep

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The dielectric properties and electrical conduction mechanism of bismuth oxychloride (BiOCl) plates synthesized using chloramine-T as the chloride ion source were investigated. Thermally-activated structure rebuilding was monitored using broadband dielectric spectroscopy, which showed that the onset temperature of this process was 283 K. This rebuilding was related to the introduction of free chloride ions into [Bi2O2]2+ layers and their growth, which increased the intensity of the (101) diffraction peak. The electrical conductivity and dielectric permittivity were related to the movement of chloride ions between plates (in the low-frequency region), the interplanar motion of Cl− ions at higher frequencies, vibrations of these ions, and charge carrier hopping at frequencies above 10 kHz. The influence of the free chloride ion concentration on the electrical conductivity was also described. Structure rebuilding was associated with a lower concentration of free chloride ions, which significantly decreased the conductivity. According to the analysis, the BiOCl plate conductivity was related to the movement of Cl− ions, not electrons.

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Calcium oxychloride: A critical review of the literature surrounding the formation, deterioration, testing procedures, and recommended mitigation techniques

Cited by 40 publications

References 65 publications

Synergistic effects of air content and supplementary cementitious materials in reducing damage caused by calcium oxychloride formation in concrete

Synergistic effects of air content and supplementary cementitious materials in reducing damage caused by calcium oxychloride formation in concrete

Freshwater salinization syndrome: from emerging global problem to managing risks

Broadband dielectric spectroscopy for monitoring temperature-dependent chloride ion motion in BiOCl plates

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