Caliciviruses: A Major Cause of Foodborne Illness

Gerba, Charles P.; Kayed, D.

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb09614.x

Cited by 17 publications

(9 citation statements)

References 106 publications

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“…Food is a frequent vehicle for human NoV transmission due to contamination with human fecal material (Gerba and Kayed 2003;Atmar 2010), poor personal hygiene of food workers and virus survival on/in the food and environment (Rzezutka and Cook 2004). The foodborne viruses in Europe network (FBVE) reported that between 2001 and 2007 data from over 10,000 outbreaks were analyzed, which showed that the proportion of foodborne outbreaks varied greatly between countries, but using predictive models, foodborne outbreaks were estimated to be around 50% (Verhoef et al 2009).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Simple and Rapid Detection of Human Norovirus from Produce Using SYBR Green I-based Real-time RT-PCR

Radin

D’Souza²

2011

Food Environ Virol

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Several foodborne norovirus gastroenteritis outbreaks have been linked to fresh produce. Rapid and sensitive detection can help prevent the release of contaminated produce items in the market. The objectives of this study were to apply a relatively inexpensive SYBR Green I-based real-time RT-PCR assay for the rapid detection of human norovirus (NoV) GI and GII on the surfaces of lettuce, cherry tomatoes, and green onions. Each washed produce commodity (25 g) was spiked with serial dilutions of NoV GI and GII stool samples. RNA was eluted from the produce surface and extracted using the TRIzol TM method. This was followed by detection using SYBR Green I real-time RT-PCR with primers specific for NoV GI (COG1F-COG1R) and GII (COG2F-COG2R) along with an internal RNA amplification control. Endpoint detection limits from lettuce and tomatoes were found to be 10 RT-PCR units/25 g for GI and GII and 1 RT-PCR unit/25 g for GI and 10 RT-PCR units/25 g for GII from green onions. These results were confirmed by Tm analysis (showing peaks at 81.5 and 84°C for GI and GII, respectively; and 83°C for the IAC) as well as agarose gel electrophoresis that confirmed products of *95 bp for GI and GII and *155 bp for the RNA IAC. Results could be obtained within one working day, showing potential for routine use in diagnostics and monitoring of NoV contamination by the produce industry.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Simple and Rapid Detection of Human Norovirus from Produce Using SYBR Green I-based Real-time RT-PCR

Radin

D’Souza²

2011

Food Environ Virol

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“…It is estimated that noroviruses cause more than 67% of all foodborne infections, but this is likely understated because of lacks of reporting, culturing, and detection methods (18,19,22). Noroviruses are highly infectious, easily transmissible, resistant to environmental stress, and ubiquitous; thus, contamination can occur anywhere in the food chain, from preharvest to point of service (10,13,28,37). Fresh produce becomes a significant vehicle in transmission of noroviruses because it undergoes minimal processing before consumption.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Electron-Beam Inactivation of a Norovirus Surrogate in Fresh Produce and Model Systems

Sanglay

Lǐ

Uribe

et al. 2011

Journal of Food Protection

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Norovirus remains the leading cause of foodborne illness, but there is no effective intervention to eliminate viral contaminants in fresh produce. Murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1) was inoculated in either 100 ml of liquid or 100 g of food. The inactivation of MNV-1 by electron-beam (e-beam), or high-energy electrons, at varying doses was measured in model systems (phosphate-buffered saline [PBS], Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium [DMEM]) or from fresh foods (shredded cabbage, diced strawberries). E-beam was applied at a current of 1.5 mA, with doses of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 kGy. The surviving viral titer was determined by plaque assays in RAW 264.7 cells. In PBS and DMEM, e-beam at 0 and 2 kGy provided less than a 1-log reduction of virus. At doses of 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 kGy, viral inactivation in PBS ranged from 2.37 to 6.40 log, while in DMEM inactivation ranged from 1.40 to 3.59 log. Irradiation of inoculated cabbage showed up to a 1-log reduction at 4 kGy, and less than a 3-log reduction at 12 kGy. On strawberries, less than a 1-log reduction occurred at doses up to 6 kGy, with a maximum reduction of 2.21 log at 12 kGy. These results suggest that a food matrix might provide increased survival for viruses. In foods, noroviruses are difficult to inactivate because of the protective effect of the food matrix, their small sizes, and their highly stable viral capsid.

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“…Norovirus is believed to be the most common cause of foodborne illness in the United States and has caused numerous outbreaks on cruise ships, in hospitals, and in educational institutions (7,8). Environmental transmission via contaminated hands and fomites is believed to be a major route of transmission (9).…”

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confidence: 99%

Quaternary Ammonium Biocides: Efficacy in Application

Gerba

2015

Appl Environ Microbiol

461

320

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Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are among the most commonly used disinfectants. There has been concern that their widespread use will lead to the development of resistant organisms, and it has been suggested that limits should be place on their use. While increases in tolerance to QACs have been observed, there is no clear evidence to support the development of resistance to QACs. Since efflux pumps are believe to account for at least some of the increased tolerance found in bacteria, there has been concern that this will enhance the resistance of bacteria to certain antibiotics. QACs are membrane-active agents interacting with the cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria and lipids of viruses. The wide variety of chemical structures possible has seen an evolution in their effectiveness and expansion of applications over the last century, including non-lipid-containing viruses (i.e., noroviruses). Selection of formulations and methods of application have been shown to affect the efficacy of QACs. While numerous laboratory studies on the efficacy of QACs are available, relatively few studies have been conducted to assess their efficacy in practice. Better standardized tests for assessing and defining the differences between increases in tolerance versus resistance are needed. The ecological dynamics of microbial communities where QACs are a main line of defense against exposure to pathogens need to be better understood in terms of sublethal doses and antibiotic resistance.

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Caliciviruses: A Major Cause of Foodborne Illness

Cited by 17 publications

References 106 publications

Simple and Rapid Detection of Human Norovirus from Produce Using SYBR Green I-based Real-time RT-PCR

Simple and Rapid Detection of Human Norovirus from Produce Using SYBR Green I-based Real-time RT-PCR

Electron-Beam Inactivation of a Norovirus Surrogate in Fresh Produce and Model Systems

Quaternary Ammonium Biocides: Efficacy in Application

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