Carbamazepine Levels Related to the Demographic Indicators in Groundwater of Densely Populated Area

Abstract

Consumption of pharmaceuticals by people is growing. Carbamazepine (CBZ) is an extensively used anti-epileptic drug that is recalcitrant to degradation. As a result, CBZ has been widely detected in the aquatic ecosystem due to its daily consumption and drainage in sewage systems. Leakages from sewage networks and septic tanks may represent one of the main sources of CBZ in groundwater. In this study, CBZ concentrations in groundwater and their correlations with the demographic structure of the population were investigated in the densely populated Milan urban area. Seventy-six demographic variables were retrieved from the Italian Population and Housing census. Twenty-one groundwater samples were collected from unconfined and semi-confined aquifers of the Milan area and the concentration of CBZ was measured. Groundwater CBZ levels in both aquifers were associated with the demographic data within a circular buffer with a radius of 1.5 km. All data were analyzed using a multivariate statistical approach. The results showed a significant association (p < 0.05) between CBZ concentrations and specific demographic segments of the population. Higher CBZ concentrations were found to be associated with the population aged 70 years and over (aging index), and with families having children aged under 5 years (family index). In addition, the divorce index was correlated with the high concentration of CBZ, whereas the educated and sexagenarian population showed a negative correlation. Our results indicated that the contamination of CBZ follows the same pattern in unconfined and semi-confined aquifers, which are used for drinking water purposes in Milan area. Therefore, changing the CBZ consumption pattern or replacing CBZ with other drugs may strongly influence groundwater contamination of the investigated area.

The Impact of Soil and Water Pollutants Released from Poultry Farming on the Growth and Development of Two Plant Species

“…In addition to antibiotics, residues of carbamazepine and metoclopramide were determined in groundwater as well as in soils collected from the vicinity of the farms. Carbamazepine is a persistent environmental pollutant that is resistant to degradation [80]. Therefore, its concentrations are very often determined in groundwater.…”

A review of wastewater treatment technologies for the degradation of pharmaceutically active compounds: Carbamazepine as a case study

“…Its likelihood for biodegradation, photodegradation and volatilization is negligible, making it a suitable candidate for CEC degradation studies, especially regarding PhACs [26,27]. In addition, it has been used as a contamination indicator in water and wastewater effluents [28]. In fact, it has been reported as the most frequently detected active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) in river catchments, being found in 62% of the 1,052 sampling sites analyzed along 258 rivers worldwide [29].…”

Degradation of Carbamazepine from Aqueous Solutions via TiO2-Assisted Photo Catalyze

“…It appears that correlations exist between the CBZ residuals detected in the groundwater and the aging or social characteristics of a population. The demographic characteristics and drug use in an urban area could influence the quality of potable water sources [14].…”