Carbon, 4. Industrial Carbons

Jäger, Hubert; Frohs, Wilhelm; Banek, M.; Christ, Martin; Daimer, Johann; Fendt, Franz; Friedrich, Claus; Gojny, Florian H.; Hiltmann, Frank; Reckendorf, Rüdiger Meyer zu; Montminy, John; Ostermann, Hartmut; Müller, Norbert; Wimmer, Karl; Sturm, Ferdinand von; Wege, Erhard; Roussel, Keith; Handl, Werner

doi:10.1002/14356007.n05_n03

Cited by 7 publications

(8 citation statements)

References 48 publications

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“…Natural graphite is mined from rock. Depending on natural graphite’s crystallinity, grain size, morphology, and reserve location, it is generally classified as amorphous, flake (crystalline), or lump and chip (crystalline). , Natural graphite is an indispensable material for refractories, brake linings, and steelmaking. , Calcining petroleum coke and coal tar pitch is the typical raw material of producing synthetic (or artificial) graphite. , Synthetic graphite is produced from the graphitization process with a high purity of 99.9%. Synthetic graphite electrodes are nonreplaceable in electric arc furnaces (EAF). , Compared to natural graphite, synthetic graphite generally has a lower density, lower electrical conductivity, and slightly higher porosity .…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Graphite Flows in the U.S.: Insights into a Key Ingredient of Energy Transition

Zhang

Liang

Dunn

2023

Environ. Sci. Technol.

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Demand for graphite will grow with expanding use of lithium-ion batteries in the United States. Much graphite is imported, raising supply chain risks. It is therefore imperative to characterize graphite's sources and sinks. Accordingly, we present the first material flow analysis for natural and synthetic graphite in the U.S. The analysis (for 2018) begins with processed graphite trade and includes graphite production, graphite product trade, manufacturing of end products, end product use, and waste management. It considers 11 end-use applications for graphite, two waste management stages, and three recycling pathways. In 2018, 354 thousand tonnes (kt) of processed graphite were consumed in the U.S., including 60 kt natural graphite and 294 kt synthetic graphite. 145 kt of graphite were traded. Refractories and foundries consumed 56% of natural graphite; 42% of synthetic graphite went into making graphite electrodes. Batteries accounted for 10 and 5% of natural and synthetic graphite consumption, respectively; 78% of total graphite used dissipated into the environment; 22% reached the waste disposal stage of which 71% was landfilled and 29% was recycled; and 59 kt of graphite accumulated in in-use stocks. Recycling more graphite and producing graphite from lignin would favorably influence today's supply chain.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“… 1 , 4 Calcining petroleum coke and coal tar pitch is the typical raw material of producing synthetic (or artificial) graphite. 6 , 7 Synthetic graphite is produced from the graphitization process with a high purity of 99.9%. Synthetic graphite electrodes are nonreplaceable in electric arc furnaces (EAF).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Graphite Flows in the U.S.: Insights into a Key Ingredient of Energy Transition

Zhang

Liang

Dunn

2023

Environ. Sci. Technol.

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“…This intermediate product is further purified (to 99.5% purity, a prerequisite for batteries) via chemical (acid) treatment. The powder is then spheriodized to lower its surface area and improve its electrochemical properties. ,− However, due to increasing demand and limited availability of graphitic ore, synthetic/artificial graphite is typically preferred . Synthetic graphite is typically manufactured by subjecting the so-called “graphitizable” or soft amorphous carbon precursors such as petroleum coke to carbonization followed by heat treatment at high temperatures in what is known as the Acheson Process .…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…6 However, only vein or refined/enriched flake graphite (macrocrystalline) has high enough purity for battery applications. Due to the rarity of vein graphitic ores (with only known ore in Sri Lanka 6,14 ), battery-grade natural graphite comes mostly from flake graphite ores, found in China, Brazil, Australia, and Mozambique. The process of converting this 5%−30% flake graphitic ore to enriched high purity graphite involves crushing the ore into a fine powder form and enriching the macrocrystalline graphite via froth flotation and magnetic separation.…”

Section: ■ Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Prospective Life Cycle Assessment of Synthetic Graphite Manufactured via Electrochemical Graphitization

Kulkarni

Huang

Thapaliya

et al. 2022

ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng.

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Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are expected to play a crucial role in meeting many of the clean energy-related goals. Due to its electrical properties such as good conductance, chemical inertness, and corrosion resistance, graphite is a very popular anode for LIBs. Traditional methods of producing battery-grade graphite (high purity >99%) include processing naturally mined graphite or manufacturing synthetic graphite via the Acheson process, which converts soft amorphous carbons such as petroleum coke into graphite by subjecting it to high temperature (up to 3000 °C) for prolonged periods of times (3−5 days). However, due to a lack of abundant high purity natural graphite sources, synthetic graphite is the preferred choice for many LIBs. A new synthetic electrochemical graphitization method that subjects the amorphous carbon precursor submerged in a molten salt mixture to a constant cathodic polarization (against a graphitic anode) has been discovered that has significantly lower graphitization temperatures (∼800 °C) and reduced graphitization time (3−6 h). Furthermore, the method can accept a higher variety of carbon precursors compared to the Acheson process. A prospective life cycle assessment (LCA) is conducted on this new method and compared against the traditional processes. The laboratory-scale demonstration of the method is used to build an inventory, which through various assumptions is scaled up to a commercial scale. An additional scenario is also considered with a biomass-derived carbon precursor for the graphite. The results from the LCA show that while the laboratory scale process is similar to the Acheson process and natural flake graphite in terms of impact, the scaled-up process is drastically better than the Acheson process in all environmental categories. Using a coconut shell-derived biomass precursor has a higher impact due to its manufacturing in Indonesia, as the Indonesian energy grid is highly fossil fuel dependent. Therefore, the biomass carbon may have a higher impact than petroleum coke dependent on the location of production of biomassderived carbon black. The LCA has identified the molten salt�CaCl 2 �as a potential hotspot and suggests other salts should be considered. The new method shows promise in this early stage LCA in improving the environmental performance of graphite (and by relation LIBs) and therefore needs to be explored more in terms of its commercial viability.

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“…This flexibility measure can only be used once a day [30]; • Graphitization is the most energy-intensive process step in the production of graphite electrodes used in the recycling of steel in arc furnaces. In this process step, carbon blanks are heated up to above 2600 • C until a graphite structure is formed [31]. The load of the graphitization process can be reduced for about 15 min without affecting the quality of the final product, provided that the energy input lost by the pause is compensated later in the process.…”

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confidence: 99%

The Challenges and Opportunities of Energy-Flexible Factories: A Holistic Case Study of the Model Region Augsburg in Germany

Roth

Schott

Ebinger³

et al. 2020

Sustainability

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Economic solutions for the integration of volatile renewable electricity generation are decisive for a socially supported energy transition. So-called energy-flexible factories can adapt their electricity consumption process efficiently to power generation. These adaptions can support the system balance and counteract local network bottlenecks. Within part of the model region Augsburg, a research and demonstration area of a federal research project, the potential, obstacles, effects, and opportunities of the energy-flexible factory were considered holistically. Exemplary flexibilization measures of industrial companies were identified and modeled. Simulations were performed to analyze these measures in supply scenarios with advanced expansion of fluctuating renewable electricity generation. The simulations demonstrate that industrial energy flexibility can make a positive contribution to regional energy balancing, thus enabling the integration of more volatile renewable electricity generation. Based on these fundamentals, profiles for regional market mechanisms for energy flexibility were investigated and elaborated. The associated environmental additional expenses of the companies for the implementation of the flexibility measures were identified in a life-cycle assessment, with the result that the negative effects are mitigated by the increased share of renewable energy. Therefore, from a technical perspective, energy-flexible factories can make a significant contribution to a sustainable energy system without greater environmental impact. In terms of a holistic approach, a network of actors from science, industry, associations, and civil society organizations was established and actively collaborated in a transdisciplinary work process. Using design-thinking methods, profiles of stakeholders in the region, as well as their mutual interactions and interests, were created. This resulted in requirements for the development of suitable business models and reduced regulatory barriers.

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Carbon, 4. Industrial Carbons

Cited by 7 publications

References 48 publications

Graphite Flows in the U.S.: Insights into a Key Ingredient of Energy Transition

Graphite Flows in the U.S.: Insights into a Key Ingredient of Energy Transition

Prospective Life Cycle Assessment of Synthetic Graphite Manufactured via Electrochemical Graphitization

The Challenges and Opportunities of Energy-Flexible Factories: A Holistic Case Study of the Model Region Augsburg in Germany

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