Carboxymethyl Cellulose Entrapped in a Poly(vinyl) Alcohol Network: Plant-Based Scaffolds for Cartilage Tissue Engineering

Abstract

Cartilage has a limited inherent healing capacity after injury, due to a lack of direct blood supply and low cell density. Tissue engineering in conjunction with biomaterials holds promise for generating cartilage substitutes that withstand stress in joints. A major challenge of tissue substitution is creating a functional framework to support cartilage tissue formation. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was crosslinked with glutaraldehyde (GA), by varying the mole ratios of GA/PVA in the presence of different amounts of plant-derived carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). Porous scaffolds were created by the freeze-drying technique. The goal of this study was to investigate how CMC incorporation and crosslinking density might affect scaffold pore formation, swelling behaviors, mechanical properties, and potential use for engineered cartilage. The peak at 1599 cm−1 of the C=O group in ATR–FTIR indicates the incorporation of CMC into the scaffold. The glass transition temperature (Tg) and Young’s modulus were lower in the PVA/CMC scaffold, as compared to the PVA control scaffold. The addition of CMC modulates the pore architecture and increases the swelling ratio of scaffolds. The toxicity of the scaffolds and cell attachment were tested. The results suggest that PVA/CMC scaffolding material can be tailored in terms of its physical and swelling properties to potentially support cartilage formation.

Recent Developments of Carboxymethyl Cellulose

“…Recently, Qi et al (2018) [304] demonstrated an effective in vivo bone regeneration in a mouse calvarial defect model and in vitro osteoblast differentiation of human mesenchymal stromal cells by using a non-woven CMC sheet (loaded with calcium phosphate). Most recently, Namkaew et al (2021) [308] reported a polyvinyl alcohol-based scaffold material for supporting cartilage formations at post-surgical conditions. The incorporation of CMC with this porous scaffold material improved the physical and swelling properties that made it more suitable for this purpose.…”

Corncob Cellulose Scaffolds: A New Sustainable Temporary Implant for Cartilage Replacement

“…In addition, it has good biocompatibility with the human body, low toxicity, high surface area, resistance and rheological properties while being a renewable material. Thus, in the recent years, cellulose has experienced an increasing interest in the tissue-engineering and regenerative-medicine fields, with applications in skin [ 21 ], bone [ 22 ], nerves [ 23 ], blood vessels [ 24 ] and cartilage [ 25 ].…”

Delivery of Mesenchymal Stem Cell in Dialdehyde Methylcellulose-Succinyl-Chitosan Hydrogel Promotes Chondrogenesis in a Porcine Model

“…DAC can be successfully prepared from cellulose or methylcellulose by using sodium periodate oxidation process and possess well biodegradation and biocompatibility properties. Recently, a scaffold prepared by entrapped carboxymethyl cellulose in a poly(vinyl) alcohol network has been introduced, but the scaffold needed further glutaraldehyde crosslinked process [ 33 ]. Researchers also tried to use an electrospinning technique to prepare a hyaluronic acid/poly (3-hydroxybutyrate)/chitosan/carbon nanotubes scaffold for cartilage repair, the scaffold has enough tensile strength, and the hydrophilic ability of the scaffold could be enhanced by the increase in hyaluronic acid concentration [ 17 ].…”