“…The ionosphere acts as a terminal of solar‐terrestrial system to display sophisticated processes when it is affected by external energy from the solar wind, magnetosphere, and the lower atmosphere in space weather events. The complicated features of ionospheric disturbance during space weather events are always a great subject of ionospheric physics and an important challenge for space weather predictions (e.g., Liu et al., 2018; Prölss, 2008). For instance, during geomagnetic storms the energy and energetic particles deposited in the polar upper atmosphere drive great changes in the chemical, electrodynamical, and thermodynamical processes in the whole ionosphere, and induce significant disturbances compared with the quiet time ionosphere (e.g., Buonsanto, 1999; Kuai et al., 2017; Lei et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2004; Mendillo, 2006; Prölss, 1995).…”