“…Studies of immigrant transnationalism, both historical and contemporary, have been characterized by four major themes. 2 First, attention has been paid to the role of migrants as citizens of nation-states, in particular, their regional and political attachments, and the more recent efforts of nation-states to reclaim their allegiance through "ideas of nation, blood, and race in nationalist rhetoric" (Guarnizo 1998b;Glick Schiller 1999;Hsu 2000;Louie 2001;Benton 2003). Second is the role of transnational markets, entrepreneurs and capital, particularly in the development of ethnic communities and ethnic enclaves (Zhou 1992;Portes and Grosfoguel 1994;Lin 1995Lin , 1998Fong 1996;Grasmuck and Grosfoguel 1997;Smart and Smart 1998;Zhou and Cai 2002).…”