Cigarette Smoking, Alcohol Use, and Gallstone Risk in Japanese Men

Abstract

Background/Aim: Results of epidemiological studies concerning the association between smoking and alcohol use and gallstone risk are inconsistent. We examined the relation of smoking and alcohol use to gallstone disease in Japanese men. Methods: We investigated 174 cases having gallstones as determined by ultrasonography, 104 cases of postcholecystectomy state, and 6,906 controls having a normal gallbladder in the consecutive series of 7,637 men aged 48–59 years receiving a retirement health examination at four hospitals of the Self-Defense Forces from 1986 to 1994. Fifty men had been aware of having gallstones. Known gallstones and postcholecystectomy state were combined as known gallstone disease. Smoking and drinking habits were ascertained by a self-administered questionnaire. Statistical adjustment was made for body mass index, glucose tolerance status, Self-Defense Forces rank, hospital, and either cigarette smoking or alcohol use. Results: Cigarette smoking was not measurably associated with either prevalent gallstones or postcholecystectomy state, nor with either newly diagnosed gallstones or known gallstone disease. Alcohol use was related to a significant decrease in the prevalence odds of both gallstones and postcholecystectomy state, and the decrease was slightly more profound for known gallstone disease. Conclusions: Cigarette smoking is probably unrelated to the gallstone risk, and alcohol consumption seems to confer protection against gallstone formation.

Independent Risk Factors for Gallstone Formation in a Region with High Cholelithiasis Prevalence

“…In line with other studies [4,7,8,9,10, 27], alcohol drinking had protective effects on the gallstone risk in men. Also in agreement with other studies [12], coffee drinking increased this risk in men.…”

“…Methodological differences may further account for conflicting results with respect to specific factors such as alcohol and coffee. Some studies [4,7,8,9,10] found a protective effect of alcohol consumption on the risk of gallstone, whereas other studies [2, 11] could not confirm this relation. One study [12] found an increased risk of cholelithiasis among coffee drinkers, but other studies [13, 14] observed an inverse relation between coffee consumption and gallstone formation.…”

Smoking and Alcohol Habits as Risk Factors for Benign Digestive Diseases in a Japanese Population: The Radiation Effects Research Foundation Adult Health Study

“…The varying results on the relationship between smoking or drinking and cholelithiasis [7,8,9,10,11] may be due to differences in study population, study design, and method of case detection. Although the biological mechanisms of the relationship between smoking and cholelithiasis are unclear [11], increased liver diseases among the smoker group in this study may have caused increased cholelithiasis since some reports show a close relation between cirrhosis and gallstones [37, 38]. Kono et al [11] reported a significant decrease in the prevalence of gallstone and postcholecystectomy status in moderate and heavy drinkers among Japanese men, but the present study showed no association of alcohol with cholelithiasis.…”

“…The consistent results that cigarette smoking is associated with an increased risk for both gastric and duodenal ulcers [1,2,3,4,5] and chronic liver disease [6] have been obtained in past epidemiological studies. On the other hand, the relationship between cigarette smoking and cholelithiasis was inconsistent [7,8,9,10,11]. Harmful effects of alcohol on chronic liver disease [6, 12] have been shown, but the effects on other diseases were controversial [1, 2,9,10,11].…”

“…On the other hand, the relationship between cigarette smoking and cholelithiasis was inconsistent [7,8,9,10,11]. Harmful effects of alcohol on chronic liver disease [6, 12] have been shown, but the effects on other diseases were controversial [1, 2,9,10,11]. …”