“…The online activities indicate a student's effort and engagement from various aspects (e.g., reviewing course materials, completing course quizzes, participating in topic forums and collaborative activities) in an online course (Kuzilek, Hlosta, and Zdrahal 2017). Specifically, we leverage clickstream data to measure online activities as it is both easily collectible and effective in representing a student's learning trajectory across different activities in online education (Park et al 2017;Chu et al 2021). Moreover, clickstream data is demonstrated to effectively capture a student's behavioral pattern (e.g., conflict, confusion, and motivation in decision-making), which provides important information in predicting a student's performance (Rhim and Gweon 2022;Park et al 2017).…”