CMOS image sensors: State-of-the-art

Theuwissen, Albert

doi:10.1016/j.sse.2008.04.012

Cited by 148 publications

(100 citation statements)

References 8 publications

Supporting

Mentioning

Contrasting

Order By: Relevance

“…Leveraging advances in the imaging field-which has produced large, fast arrays for photonic imaging 22 -we sought a suitable electronic sensor for the construction of an integrated circuit to detect the hydrogen ions that would be released by DNA polymerase 23 during sequencing by synthesis, as opposed to a sensor designed for the detection of photons. Although a variety of electrochemical detection methods have been studied 24,25 , the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) 26,27 was most applicable to our chemistry and scaling requirements because of its sensitivity to hydrogen ions, and its compatibility with CMOS processes [28][29][30][31] .…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

An integrated semiconductor device enabling non-optical genome sequencing

Rothberg¹,

Hinz²,

Rearick³

et al. 2011

Nature

1,893

1,157

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

The seminal importance of DNA sequencing to the life sciences, biotechnology and medicine has driven the search for more scalable and lower-cost solutions. Here we describe a DNA sequencing technology in which scalable, low-cost semiconductor manufacturing techniques are used to make an integrated circuit able to directly perform non-optical DNA sequencing of genomes. Sequence data are obtained by directly sensing the ions produced by template-directed DNA polymerase synthesis using all-natural nucleotides on this massively parallel semiconductor-sensing device or ion chip. The ion chip contains ion-sensitive, field-effect transistor-based sensors in perfect register with 1.2 million wells, which provide confinement and allow parallel, simultaneous detection of independent sequencing reactions. Use of the most widely used technology for constructing integrated circuits, the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process, allows for low-cost, large-scale production and scaling of the device to higher densities and larger array sizes. We show the performance of the system by sequencing three bacterial genomes, its robustness and scalability by producing ion chips with up to 10 times as many sensors and sequencing a human genome.DNA sequencing and, more recently, massively parallel DNA sequencing 1-4 has had a profound impact on research and medicine. The reductions in cost and time for generating DNA sequence have resulted in a range of new sequencing applications in cancer 5,6 , human genetics 7 , infectious diseases 8 and the study of personal genomes 9-11 , as well as in fields as diverse as ecology 12,13 and the study of ancient DNA 14,15 . Although de novo sequencing costs have dropped substantially, there is a desire to continue to drop the cost of sequencing at an exponential rate consistent with the semiconductor industry's Moore's Law 16 as well as to provide lower cost, faster and more portable devices. This has been operationalized by the desire to reach the $1,000 genome 17 .To date, DNA sequencing has been limited by its requirement for imaging technology, electromagnetic intermediates (either X-rays 18 , or light 19 ) and specialized nucleotides or other reagents 20 . To overcome these limitations and further democratize the practice of sequencing, a paradigm shift based on non-optical sequencing on newly developed integrated circuits was pursued. Owing to its scalability and its low power requirement, CMOS processes are dominant in modern integrated circuit manufacturing 21 . The ubiquitous nature of computers, digital cameras and mobile phones has been made possible by the low-cost production of integrated circuits in CMOS.Leveraging advances in the imaging field-which has produced large, fast arrays for photonic imaging 22 -we sought a suitable electronic sensor for the construction of an integrated circuit to detect the hydrogen ions that would be released by DNA polymerase 23 during sequencing by synthesis, as opposed to a sensor designed for the detection of photons. Although a variety ...

show abstract

mentioning

confidence: 99%

An integrated semiconductor device enabling non-optical genome sequencing

Rothberg¹,

Hinz²,

Rearick³

et al. 2011

Nature

1,893

1,157

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…By reducing pixel dimensions, approaching a minimum pixel size of about 1 mm (ref. 18), the light sensitivity of the active pixel sensor (APS), the most competitive CMOS-imager design compared with CCD, decreases. This is due to the incorporation of the read-out amplifier directly into each pixel, which reduces the pixel area available for photon detection.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

A hybrid CMOS-imager with a solution-processable polymer as photoactive layer

et al. 2012

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

The solution-processability of organic photodetectors allows a straightforward combination with other materials, including inorganic ones, without increasing cost and process complexity significantly compared with conventional crystalline semiconductors. Although the optoelectronic performance of these organic devices does not outmatch their inorganic counterparts, there are certain applications exploiting the benefit of the solution-processability. Here we demonstrate that the small pixel fill factor of present complementary metal oxide semiconductor-imagers, decreasing the light sensitivity, can be increased up to 100% by replacing silicon photodiodes with an organic photoactive layer deposited with a simple low-cost spray-coating process. By performing a full optoelectronic characterization on this first solution-processable hybrid complementary metal oxide semiconductor-imager, including the first reported observation of different noise types in organic photodiodes, we demonstrate the suitability of this novel device for imaging. Furthermore, by integrating monolithically different organic materials to the chip, we show the cost-effective portability of the hybrid concept to different wavelength regions.

show abstract

“…1 The gate structure used in CCDs to transfer electrical charges (image data) to the edge of the sensor, requires a separate power source (more power) and sequential data transfer (slower speed). 2,3 For portable device applications, smaller devices with low power consumption are strongly desired.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Room Temperature Photoluminescence Characterization of Low Dose As+ Implanted Si after Rapid Thermal Annealing

Yoo¹,

Yoshimoto

Sagara

et al. 2015

ECS Solid State Letters

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Arsenic (As + 150 keV, 1.0 × 10 13 cm −2 ) implanted p − -Si(100) wafers were spike annealed at 1100 • C for 1s in a commercially available rapid thermal annealing (RTA) system. Significant variations in sheet resistance were observed while As dopant profiles, measured by secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), were almost identical. Photoluminescence (PL) spectra were measured from all wafers under three different excitation wavelengths (532, 650 and 827 nm) at room temperature. PL spectra showed large intensity variation, corresponding to the sheet resistance. PL excitation wavelength dependence suggests the variation in density of residual damage as the possible cause of sheet resistance variation. Charge coupled devices (CCDs) have been widely used in scientific instruments and digital cameras until recently.1 The gate structure used in CCDs to transfer electrical charges (image data) to the edge of the sensor, requires a separate power source (more power) and sequential data transfer (slower speed). 2,3For portable device applications, smaller devices with low power consumption are strongly desired. Complementary metal-oxidesemiconductor (CMOS) image sensors, with reduced power consumption and fast data transfer, have become a common alternative choice for image sensors.3 These devices consist of large arrays of photodiodes and amplifiers. The photodiodes accumulate electrical charge and increase voltage when exposed to light. The voltage is amplified and transmitted as electrical signals. Since the CMOS image sensors have the same basic structure as CMOS memory devices, they are cost effectively mass produced, using well-established manufacturing technology. 1Generally, CMOS image sensors generate more electrical noise than CCDs and can result in poor image quality due to performance fluctuations in the large array of photodiodes and amplifiers.3 Small performance differences in photodiodes and amplifiers can result in noise in the output image. The noise problem increases as cell size is reduced and the number of cells in a chip increases. Noise reduction approaches commonly used to overcome this problem are; improved device level performance variation and reduction of the variation of background noise. Device-level noise reduction efforts are also becoming increasingly important. 4 High energy, low dose ion implant conditions are often used in CMOS image sensor fabrication processes. Average dopant concentration in the implanted junctions are 2 ∼ 3 orders of magnitude lower than those of advanced CMOS logic and memory devices. Small amounts of defects and residual damage have a significant impact in the electrical properties of implanted junctions after RTA. To reduce noise in CMOS image sensors, elimination of defects and residual damage are very important steps. The room temperature photoluminescence (RTPL) technique can be used for finding and reducing the electrically active and/or non-radiative defects and damage in the early stage of CMOS image sensor fabrication steps.It is well known that metal c...

show abstract

CMOS image sensors: State-of-the-art

Cited by 148 publications

References 8 publications

An integrated semiconductor device enabling non-optical genome sequencing

An integrated semiconductor device enabling non-optical genome sequencing

A hybrid CMOS-imager with a solution-processable polymer as photoactive layer

Room Temperature Photoluminescence Characterization of Low Dose As+ Implanted Si after Rapid Thermal Annealing

Contact Info

Product

Resources

About