Cognitive Models of Writing: Writing Proficiency as a Complex Integrated Skill

Abstract

This paper undertakes a review of the literature on writing cognition, writing instruction, and writing assessment with the goal of developing a framework and competency model for a new approach to writing assessment. The model developed is part of the Cognitively Based Assessments of, for, and as Learning (CBAL) initiative, an ongoing research project at ETS intended to develop a new form of kindergarten through Grade 12 (K-12) assessment that is based on modern cognitive understandings; built around integrated, foundational, constructedresponse tasks that are equally useful for assessment and for instruction; and structured to allow multiple measurements over the course of the school year. The model that emerges from a review of the literature on writing places a strong emphasis on writing as an integrated, socially situated skill that cannot be assessed properly without taking into account the fact that most writing tasks involve management of a complex array of skills over the course of a writing project, including language and literacy skills, document-creation and document-management skills, and critical-thinking skills. As such, the model makes strong connections with emerging conceptions of reading and literacy, suggesting an assessment approach in which writing is viewed as calling upon a broader construct than is usually tested in assessments that focus on relatively simple, on-demand writing tasks.

Automated Scoring Within a Developmental, Cognitive Model of Writing Proficiency

“…Drawing upon the literature in writing cognition, Deane, Quinlan, Odendahl, Welsh, and Bivens-Tatum (2008) identified three fundamentally different kinds of skills that should be included in the writing construct:…”

“…A full account of this competency model and an explication of the various skills indicated by it can be found in Deane et al, (2008). Certain critical points should be noted.…”

“…At least from a formative perspective, reading, writing, and the acquisition of critical thinking skills are closely related. See Deane et al (2008) and O'Reilly et al (2008) for more detailed discussions of these points.…”

A Historical Survey of Research Regarding Constructed-Response Formats

“…Specifically, the importance of the role of "fluency" in writing was beginning to emerge (C. W. Taylor 1947) well within the psychometric camp. Today, the assessment of writing is informed by a view of writing as a "complex integrated skill" (Deane et al 2008;Sparks et al 2014) with fluency as a key subskill. By today's standards, the scope of the concept of reliability was not fully developed in the 1930s and 1940s in the sense of understanding the components of unreliability.…”

“…The interest in incorporating writing in the GMAT dates back to at least the mid-1980s (Owens 2006). next-generation K-12 assessments. Under this umbrella, the writing construct has expanded to acknowledge the importance of other skills, specifically reading and critical thinking, and the developmental trajectories that underlie proficiency (Deane 2012;Deane and Quinlan 2010;Deane et al 2008Deane et al , 2012. In addition to expanding the breadth of the writing construct, recent work has also emphasized depth by detailing the nature of the evidence to be sought in student writing, especially argumentative writing .…”