Cognitive testing toward the future: The example of Semantic Verbal Fluency (ANIMALS)

Abstract

We are proposing that, in the future, tests included in psychological and neuropsychological batteries should fulfil the following criteria. (1) Have a large enough normative database (“normative criterion”). Performance of subjects of different ages and different educational levels, including illiterates, should be well established. Normative data from different countries and cultural contexts should be available. (2) Know the effects of brain damage on different characteristics on the test (“clinical criterion”). (3) Know how the brain is activated when the test is performed (“experimental criterion”). (4) Know how this test correlates with other cognitive tests (“psychometric criterion”). Few contemporary tests fulfil all these criteria. A notable exception is Semantic Verbal Fluency test using the category ANIMALS. This test requires the generation of words corresponding to a specific semantic category, such as animals, fruits, vegetables, etc. Typically, the number of correct words produced in 1 minute is counted. Semantic verbal fluency taps lexical knowledge and semantic memory organization. Using regional cerebral blood flow measures, it has been reported that both frontal and temporal activation are observed while performing this test. Optimal fluency performance involves generating words within a subcategory and, when a subcategory is exhausted, switching to a new subcategory. Although different semantic categories have been used in this test, ANIMALS is the most frequent due to some significant advantages: (1) it is a clear enough semantic category across languages and cultures; (2) it is a relatively easy semantic category with only minor differences among people living in different countries, different educational systems, or belonging to different generations; and (3) it is an easy‐to‐administer, short, and common test included in different neuropsychological test batteries. It is concluded that obtaining similar information for other cognitive tests represents a huge research endeavour for psychology and neuropsychology during the 21st century.

The semantic organization of the animal category: evidence from semantic verbal fluency and network theory

“…Verbal fluency tasks with either semantic or phonetic cues are widely used in neuropsychological studies (Galeote and Peraita 1999;Ardila and Ostrosky-Solís 2006). In semantic fluency tasks, participants have to produce words from a category such as animals or fruits in a given time (usually 60 or 90 s).…”

Remotely Close Associations: Openness to Experience and Semantic Memory Structure

“…and they offer greater insights into categorical knowledge structure. While different semantic categories have been used for this task, the animal category is the most widely used, as it is more universal and has shown only minor differences across different languages and cultures (Ardila et al, 2006). Moreover, because there is a well-known hierarchical structure of the animal category (i.e., the animal kingdom in biological taxonomy), its less likely that the semantic network representations will be affected by openness to experience.…”

Memory-Based Specification of Verbal Features for Classifying Animals into Super-Ordinate and Sub-Ordinate Categories

“…Animal categories have been widely used in previous studies (Ardila et al, 2006). We referred to six studies (Battig and Montague, 1969;Dell' Acqua et al, 2000;Storms, 2001;Yoon et al, 2004;Nishimoto et al, 2005;De Deyne et al, 2008).…”