Coloring Materials, Technological Practices, and Painting Traditions:

The Materiality of Color in Pre-Columbian Codices: Insights From Cultural History

“…Most of the reds in this body of documents are vivid and saturated (Dupey 2017; Dupey and Álvarez Icaza 2017), while their hue is reminiscent of the color of cochineal. These remarks are based on the examination of the original manuscripts and coincide with the results of the scientific studies executed on the Codices Borbonicus, Cospi , and Fejérváry-Mayer (Domenici et al 2014; Miliani et al 2012; Pottier et al 2014, 2016), as well as the pre-Columbian Mixtec manuscripts (Higgitt 2013; Nowotny and Strebinger 1959; Strebinger 1961; Torres et al 1966; Zetina et al 2014). With different degrees of certainty, these studies show that the red colors in the Mixteca-Puebla codices were prepared with an organic material of animal origin, whose features are similar to those of cochineal.…”

“…Physicochemical characterization studies carried out on the Mixteca-Puebla codices revealed their preparatory layers of plaster are mostly composed of calcium sulfate (CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O), commonly known as gypsum. Specifically, the Cospi ’s preparatory layer is made of gypsum with minor traces of calcium carbonate, while the Fejérváry-Mayer ’s is a mixture of gypsum and anhydrite (CaSO), the anhydrous form of calcium sulfate (Domenici et al 2014:101; Laurencich et al 1993:204; Miliani et al 2012:674–675). Variable amounts of gypsum were also applied on the bark paper of the Codex Borbonicus (Pottier et al 2016), as well as the hide base of the Mixtec codices (González 1998:50; Higgitt 2013; Strebinger 1961:23; Torres et al 1966:91; Zetina et al 2011:352–353, 2014:127, 135).…”

“…The physicochemical characterization studies performed on the Codices Cospi and Fejérváry-Mayer have revealed that the white plaster that served as a preparatory layer was applied to the hide base in a single episode, independently of the subsequent painting sessions (Domenici et al 2014:102–103; Miliani et al 2012). This scientific discovery recalls Cortés’ (1993:326) letters, in which the conqueror wrote that in Tlatelolco's market “deer hides with and without hair, dyed white and variously colored” ( cueros de venado con pelo y sin él, teñidos blancos y de diversas colores ) were sold (translation by author).…”

“…3, p. 405). Thus, according to Domenici et al (2014:103), the chimaltizatl “is the best candidate as the Nahuatl name of the gypsum used on the Borgia Group and Mixtec codices.” I agree with this idea on the basis of some additional evidence provided by Sahagún (2000), Molina (1970), and Clavijero (1991), which confirm that the chimaltizatl specifically served to plaster the codices. The last of these authors mentions this material in a passage of his book devoted to the colors used to paint canvas, which actually concerns codices (Clavijero 1991:249).…”

“…Historical records dealing with the pre-Columbian Nahua culture confirm the utilization of vegetal carbon for the color black, among other substances that served to make ink. As some colleagues emphasized (Domenici et al 2014:104; Miliani et al 2012:675), colonial texts also provide the Nahuatl name of this material and explain the technique used by the natives to prepare it. When defining the archetype of the painter, Sahagún's (1953–1982:vol.…”