Combined modes of gradual change: the case of academic upgrading and declining collectivism in German skill formation

A dynamic theoretical framework of gradual institutional changes

“…However, in both cases layering was preceded by drift, which undermined the proper functioning of prevailing public/collective institutions and provided fertile conditions for privatization: the income replacement rates of collective/PAYGO pension systems have eroded, and public budgets have stagnated despite growing needs. In addition, in an exemplar of conversion-the transformation of the German vocational training system (Thelen 2004)-the layering of alternative training arrangements preceded the redirecting of existing ones: German trade unions have managed to capture the established system, which exclusively served artisans, after creating their own training system (Boas 2007, p. 51; see also Graf 2018). The causal links between modes of gradual change, demonstrated in our two cases, underline the relevance of the analytical framework of gradual institutional changes for the study of public administration reform and bureaucratic politics.…”

“…Empirical studies of gradual institutional changes provide evidence for the existence of the above‐mentioned combinations of modes of gradual change: drift is followed by layering in Hacker () and Gildiner (); layering is followed by conversion in Béland (), Graf () and Palier (); conversion is followed by expansion in Falleti () and may also be observed in Howard (). Except for Graf (), the causal links between several modes of gradual change was not analysed in these studies (see also Capano ).…”

“…Since these elements were initially built to serve other goals, it is very likely that they will not be able to fully address the aspirations of those change agents who have broader goals. For example, Alfred Khan, Chair of the Civil Aeronautics Board in the US, began his competition reform in the American airline industry by converting existing regulations, but these measures were insufficient for Empirical studies of gradual institutional changes provide evidence for the existence of the above-mentioned combinations of modes of gradual change: drift is followed by layering in Hacker (2004) and Gildiner (2007); layering is followed by conversion in Béland (2007), Graf (2018) and Palier (2007); conversion is followed by expansion in Falleti (2010) and may also be observed in Howard (1999). Except for Graf (2018), the causal links between several modes of gradual change was not analysed in these studies (see also Capano 2018).…”

Collective Action, Business Cleavages and the Politics of Control: Segmentalism in the Swiss Skill Formation System

“…The reform was enacted despite the opposition of trade unions and the crafts sector, with the latter fearing that it could no longer make use of apprentices as a cheap workforce. The literature on segmentalism in collective skill formation systems also takes the dual‐study programmes in Germany as examples of employers’ influence on training (Busemeyer and Thelen ; Graf ). In these programmes, students are trained in higher education institutions and firms where they gain a Bachelor's degree.…”

“…Various scholars have observed that the content and governance of training increasingly focuses on the needs of large firms in these systems, resulting in a less encompassing and more segmented labour market with limited occupational mobility for employees (Busemeyer ; Graf ; Thelen ). Scholars call this ‘segmentalism’.…”