Comparing Marine and Terrestrial Ecosystems: Implications for the Design of Coastal Marine Reserves

Abstract

Abstract. Concepts and theory for the design and application of terrestrial reserves is based on our understanding of environmental, ecological, and evolutionary processes responsible for biological diversity and sustainability of terrestrial ecosystems and how humans have influenced these processes. How well this terrestrial-based theory can be applied toward the design and application of reserves in the coastal marine environment depends, in part, on the degree of similarity between these systems. Several marked differences in ecological and evolutionary processes exist between marine and terrestrial ecosystems as ramifications of fundamental differences in their physical environments (i.e., the relative prevalence of air and water) and contemporary patterns of human impacts. Most notably, the great extent and rate of dispersal of nutrients, materials, holoplanktonic organisms, and reproductive propagules of benthic organisms expand scales of connectivity among nearshore communities and ecosystems. Consequently, the ''openness'' of marine populations, communities, and ecosystems probably has marked influences on their spatial, genetic, and trophic structures and dynamics in ways experienced by only some terrestrial species. Such differences appear to be particularly significant for the kinds of organisms most exploited and targeted for protection in coastal marine ecosystems (fishes and macroinvertebrates). These and other differences imply some unique design criteria and application of reserves in the marine environment. In explaining the implications of these differences for marine reserve design and application, we identify many of the environmental and ecological processes and design criteria necessary for consideration in the development of the analytical approaches developed elsewhere in this Special Issue.

Landscape connectivity promotes plant biodiversity spillover into non-target habitats

“…First, the creation of marine reserves can increase fish species richness (9,29), which likely promotes spillover into surrounding waters in a manner analogous to our terrestrial system. Second, there are dispersal correlates: many marine species display a dispersing planktonic phase, akin to plant seeds, and a sedentary adult phase, akin to rooted adult plants (30,31). Third, ocean currents promote connectivity of isolated reefs, resulting in greater fish density in reefs connected downstream (32), suggesting that connectivity might promote spillover as in our study.…”

Disruption of historical patterns of isolation by distance in coastal steelhead

“…The demonstration of the importance of migration has direct application to management and conservation of these ESAprotected fish populations, as well as more general habitat conservation plans and the design of coastal marine reserves (Carr et al 2003). The direct evaluation of historical population structure of steelhead also provides a compelling example of the value of natural history museum collections in providing a historical baseline for comparison with modern populations and planning for their continued existence (Nielsen and Hansen 2008).…”

Unifying latitudinal gradients in range size and richness across marine and terrestrial systems

“…Temperate species in the Northern Hemisphere accordingly tend to have broader climate envelopes than Southern Hemisphere equivalents, resulting in generally broader ranges in the Northern Hemisphere temperate zone. Terrestrial systems show steeper climatic latitudinal gradients and greater longitudinal heterogeneity in temperature and rainfall at individual latitudes ( figure 3a -c), and dispersal distances and scales of connectivity tend to be smaller [58,59]. Elevation, moisture, water bodies, and other range-limiting barriers in terrestrial systems are absent from marine systems.…”