Competition between 3D structural inheritance and kinematics during rifting: insights from analogue models

Abstract

The competition between the impact of inherited weaknesses and plate kinematics determines the location and style of deformation during rifting, yet the relative impacts of these “internal” and “external” factors remain poorly understood, especially in 3D. In this study we used brittle-viscous analogue models to assess how multiphase rifting, i.e., changes in plate divergence rate or direction, and the distribution of weaknesses in the competent mantle and crust influence rift evolution. We find that the combined reactivation of mantle and crustal weaknesses without kinematic changes creates complex rift structures. Divergence rates affects the strength of the weak lower crustal layer and hence the degree of mantle-crustal coupling. In this context slow rifting decreases coupling, so that crustal weaknesses can easily localize deformation and dominate surface structures, whereas fast rifting increases coupling so that deformation related to mantle weaknesses can have a dominant surface expression. Through a change from slow to fast rifting mantle-related deformation can overprint previous structures that formed along (differently oriented) crustal weaknesses. Conversely, a change from fast to slow rifting may shift deformation from mantle-controlled towards crust-controlled. When changing divergence directions, structures from the first rifting phase may control where subsequent deformation occurs, but only when they are well developed. Alternatively, they are ignored during subsequent rifting. We furthermore place our results in a larger framework of brittle-viscous rift modelling results from previous experimental studies, showing the importance of genral lithospheric layering, divergence rate, the type of deformation in the mantle, and finally upper crustal structural inheritance. The interaction between these parameters can lead to a large variety of deformation styles that may often lead to comparable end products. Therefore, detailed investigation of faulting and to an equal extent basin depocenter distribution over time is required to properly determine the evolution of complex rift systems. These insights provide a strong incentive to revisit various natural examples.

Analogue modelling of basin inversion: a review and future perspectives

“…An exception are the models by Gartrell et al (2005) and Konstantinovskaya et al (2007), who instead applied a system of pulleys and weights to drive deformation (force boundary condition). Most inversion models focus on the crustal scale, where the set-up may reflect specific assumptions regarding the properties of the basement or mantle below (see Zwaan et al, 2019Zwaan et al, , 2021Zwaan et al, , 2022, for a discussion on this topic), but some mod-ellers have also simulated basin inversion on a lithospheric scale (Gartrell et al, 2005;Cerca et al, 2010).…”

“…Various options are available, such as 3D digital image correlation (DIC) image analysis (Dooley and Hudec, 2020;Schmid et al, 2022, Sect. 3.6.4), photogrammetry on stereoscopic photographs (Maestrelli et al, 2020(Maestrelli et al, , 2021Zwaan et al, 2020aZwaan et al, , 2021Zwaan et al, , 2022, and fringe projection analysis (Barrientos et al, 2008;Martínez et al, 2016). The technique that has been generally used for topography analysis of basin inversion models is surface scanning through laser or white light methods (Bonini et al, 2012;Likerman et al, 2013;Jara et al, 2015Jara et al, , 2018Granado et al, 2017;Deng et al, 2019, Fig.…”

“…Depending on various factors, such as layer thicknesses, extension velocity, viscosity of the detachment layer, and the presence of a single or double VD, a single or double-graben system or even a wide rift zone may develop during extension (compare the rift phases of, e.g. Dubois et al, 2002;Konstantinovskaya et al, 2007;Mattioni et al, 2007;see Zwaan et al, 2019;Zwaan et al, 2022, for a broader discussion on this topic). In Fig.…”

Influence of Zones of Pre‐Existing Crustal Weakness on Strain Localization and Partitioning During Rifting: Insights From Analog Modeling Using High‐Resolution 3D Digital Image Correlation

“…First, the varying influence of a pre-existing crustal weak zone because of its orientation or depth compares well with previous models. For example, the ability of a weak zone to localize deformation is strongly influenced by the orientation of the crustal weak zone with respect to the model-extension direction, that is, it localizes more when it is orthogonal (i.e., optimally oriented) and less with increasing obliquity (e.g., analytical solution by Ranalli and Yin [1990]; and analog models by Zwaan and Schreurs [2017], Molnar et al [2019], Zwaan et al [2021aZwaan et al [ , 2021b). Under oblique extension, the graben-bounding faults tend to develop as characteristic en échelon faults which is comparable to observations in several oblique rift modeling studies (Agostini et al, 2009;Clifton et al, 2000;McClay & White, 1995;Tron & Brun, 1991;Van Wijk, 2005;Withjack & Jamison, 1986;Zwaan et al, 2021a).…”

“…Over the past decades a growing number of analog-(e.g., Aanyu & Koehn, 2011;Agostini et al, 2009Agostini et al, , 2011Allemand & Brun, 1991;Autin et al, 2010Autin et al, , 2013Basile & Brun, 1999;Bellahsen et al, 2003;Bellahsen & Daniel, 2005; L. Bonini et al, 2015;M. Bonini et al, 1997;Brun, 1999;Chattopadhyay & Chakra, 2013;Chemenda et al, 2002;Clifton et al, 2000;Corti et al, 2001Corti et al, , 2003Dauteuil & Brun, 1993;Ghosh et al, 2020;Henza et al, 2010;Keep & McClay, 1997;Maestrelli et al, 2020;McClay & White, 1995;McClay et al, 2002;Michon & Merle, 2000;Michon & Sokoutis, 2005;Molnar et al, 2019Molnar et al, , 2020Philippon et al, 2015;Sani et al, 2019;Sokoutis et al, 2007;Tong et al, 2014;Tron & Brun, 1991;Withjack & Jamison, 1986;Zwaan et al, 2016Zwaan et al, , 20192021a, 2021bZwaan & Schreurs, 2017) and numerical-(e.g., Allken et al, 2012;Brune, 2014;…”