Conceptualizing “Dark Platforms”. Covid-19-Related Conspiracy Theories on 8kun and Gab

Abstract

This study investigates how COVID-19-related content, especially conspiracy theories, is communicated on "dark platforms"digital platforms that are less regulated and moderated, hence can be used for hosting content and content creators that may not be tolerated by their more mainstream counterparts. The objective of this study is two-fold: First, it introduces the concept of dark platforms, which differ from their mainstream counterparts in terms of content governance, user-base and technological infrastructure. Second, using 8kun and Gab as examples, this study investigates how the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has been communicated on dark platforms, with a focus on conspiracy theories. Over 60,000 COVID-19-related posts were studied to identify the most prominent conspiracy theories, their themes, and the actors who promoted them, as well as the broader information ecosystem through network analysis. While pressure on social media to deplatform conspiracy theorists continues to grow, we argue that more research needs to be done to critically investigate the impacts of further marginalizing such groups. To this end, the concept of dark platform as can serve as a heuristic device for researching a wider range of fringe platforms.

El Cabal, Vacunas, y Donald Trump: An Analysis of Spanish-Language Disinformation Leading Up to the U.S. Capitol Insurrection

“…The content on this website is more stable and accessible than most social media content, which is one reason we turned to it for analysis. Another reason is that as social media platforms become more aggressive in moderating their content, conspiratorial content and users will be pushed to what Zeng and Schäfer (2021) term the “dark platforms” of the internet. As they discuss, dark platforms like nosmintieron.tv are characterized by their anti-content moderation policies and the congregation of digital exiles who have been banned from mainstream platforms.…”

Conspiracy theories in digital environments: Moving the research field forward

“…This logic makes conspiracy theories appealing because they – compared to debunking and scientific information – are more viral, have longer lifespans and generate more user engagement ( Bessi et al, 2015 ; Del Vicario et al, 2016 ; Papakyriakopoulos et al, 2020 ; Zhang et al, 2021 ). Consequently, it comes as no surprise that algorithmic curation on social media often recommends conspiracy theories ( Tufekci, 2018 ) and that conspiracy theories have become popular amongst attention-seeking content creators ( Zeng and Schäfer, 2021 ).…”

“…The YouTube Partner Programme, for example, lets users derive revenue from advertising shown in conspiracy theory content ( Ballard et al, 2022 ). Despite the platforms’ attempts to demonetise conspiracy theory-related videos, some have managed to stay on the platform and in the programme ( Ferreira, 2020 ), while others have migrated to alternative platforms with monetising programmes ( Ballard et al, 2022 ; Zeng and Schäfer, 2021 ). More established conspiracy theorists, especially so-called conspiracy entrepreneurs ( Barkun, 2013 : 192), also use their own websites and apps to sell merchandise, publications or receive direct donations.…”

“…To a large extent, the process of conspiracy theorising is a process of collective sense-making, for which crowdsourcing ‘evidence’ is important. Through liking and following, linking, tagging, conspiracy theory adherents collectively curate and crowdsource information to prove their claims ( Zeng and Schäfer, 2021 ). Moreover, the existence of vocal, homophilious communities around conspiracy theories provides safety in numbers and, in turn, encourages more ‘silent believers’ to publicly promote conspiracy theories.…”

“…More recently, scholars have increasingly examined how digital communication technologies can exacerbate and complicate the phenomenon of conspiracy theories. For instance, media and communication scholars seek to measure and explain the prevalence of various types of conspiracy theories online ( Bruns et al, 2020 ; Jennings et al, 2021 ; Zeng and Schäfer, 2021 ) and examine regulatory measures implemented to mitigate this so-called conspiracy theory culture on varied digital platforms ( Ferreira, 2020 ; Horta Ribeiro et al, 2021 ; Papakyriakopoulos et al., 2020 ).…”