Constitutional Government and Politics

Investigating the Effects of Moral Disengagement and Participation on Unethical Work Behavior

“…However, Simon noted that the implementation of authority requires no a priori command. Instead, the ''rule of anticipated reactions'' holds, whereby subordinates may and are expected to ask themselves ''what would my superior wish me to do in these circumstances'' (e.g., Friedrich 1937). An individual on the receiving end of an assigned performance goal may feel that he/she was ordered to engage in immoral behavior, even if no explicit order was given.…”

Sovereignty and Differentiated Integration in the European Union

“…Thus, Weiler argues that if one applies the analogy of the Cold War and the logic of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) to the situation of the national and supranational authorities in a boundary dispute between legal orders, then neither side is likely to go further than merely threatening the use of its judicial 'nuclear weapon' to strike down a properly constituted rule of the other side, for fear of reprisals and the extremely hazardous consequences for all which would flow from this chain of activity. 104 On this view, even in the most fundamental dispute, each side will apply the 'rule of anticipated reactions' 105 to take a moderate approach and develop a more 'even conversation' 106 with the other, which results in a mutual adjustment of position rather than the total breakdown of boundary discipline. And, in defence of Weiler's view, it may be argued that this, in fact, is how the principals have behaved in EU-state boundary disputes to date, the belligerent rhetoric masking a willingness to compromise in the final instance.…”

Releasing the Beast: A Study of Compliance with Orders to Use Race as a Selection Criterion

“…Following the lead of Tead (1929) and Stene (1940), Simon further differentiates authority from other kinds of influence by noting that subordinates hold in abeyance their own critical faculties for choosing between alternatives, and use the formal criterion of the receipt of a command or signal as their basis for choice. Moreover, he recognizes Friedrich's (1937) "rule of anticipated reactions" that implies subordinates may, and are expected to, ask themselves, "How would my superior wish me to behave under these circumstances?" Thus, the implementation of authority does not necessarily require that a command be uttered; rather, the "order" may be implicit.…”