Continuous biodiesel production based on hand blender technology for sustainable household utilization

Low-cost alternative biodiesel production apparatus based on household food blender for continuous biodiesel production for small communities

“…Moreover, the kinematic viscosity of each feedstock listed in Supplementary Table S1 might affect FAME yield. Palm oil showed a higher kinematic viscosity and a lower molecular weight corresponding to a lesser hindrance effect giving the highest FAME yield, while canola oil and sunflower oil had lower kinematic viscosity and higher molecular weight presenting lower FAME yield 40 . It can be concluded that, based on this study, FAME yield depends on the molecular weight (chain length) of feedstocks and the kinematic viscosity.…”

“…For a volume larger than 2000 mL, the concentration of microbubbles from cavitation decreases due to inactive zones at regions away from the blade tips 40 as well as lower mass and heat transfer, leading to a declined FAME yield. The cavitational effect taking place inside the reactor is a crucial phenomenon for improving mixing efficiency.…”

“…At the low catalyst content of 0.75 wt.%, a low FAME yield was observed. A small amount of catalyst means a small number of active sites present to react with oil, resulting in a low FAME yield 40 . Also at 1.25 wt%, emulsion formation was observed, and this phenomenon leads to difficulty in separation 15 including increased production and purification costs.…”

“…The higher impeller speed also increases the number of numerous microbubbles from cavitation occurrence which improves mass and heat transfer, as well as reactant homogenization. Besides, when the impeller speed is high, oil dispersion in the methanol phase containing the catalyst is enhanced 40 , resulting in a higher FAME yield. Nevertheless, more heat accumulation could be generated with increasing impeller speed 40 .…”

“…Besides, when the impeller speed is high, oil dispersion in the methanol phase containing the catalyst is enhanced 40 , resulting in a higher FAME yield. Nevertheless, more heat accumulation could be generated with increasing impeller speed 40 . This also suggests that even higher steady-state FAME yield could be achieved by active cooling of the reactor, e.g., water cooling, so that higher impeller speed can be applied while maintaining the same reaction temperature of 62–63 °C.…”