Correlation between water hardness and cardiovascular diseases in Mostar city, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the association of cardiovascular disease (CVD) of selected human subjects with the hardness of water they consume. Laboratory testing of physical and chemical parameters of water were made using standardized methods: Standard Methods 19th edn, 1995 (APHA, AWWA & WEF, Washington, DC), and ISO 7888:1985, ISO 10523:1998. Pearson's chi-squared test was used for the statistical analysis of data, with the significance level of 0.05. The obtained data were analysed using the statistical program SPSS 16.0. The study sample consisted of 1,021 individuals divided into two groups: soft water consumers, 603 individuals, and, hard water consumers, 618 individuals. Results indicate that a statistically significant (χ(2) = 5.315; df = 1; p = 0.021) number of individuals with CVD drink soft water. The prevalence of CVD in the age group 45-60 years in the study area where soft water is consumed was 21.3% and in the study area where hard water is consumed the prevalence of CVD was 13.7%. The summary results indicate significant correlation between the prevalence of CVD in the population group who drink soft water. The value of the relative risk is 1.127.

Hydration, Fluid Intake, and Related Urine Biomarkers among Male College Students in Cangzhou, China: A Cross-Sectional Study—Applications for Assessing Fluid Intake and Adequate Water Intake

“…In addition, hypohydration increased the incidence and the prevalence of urinary system diseases [7,8,9,10]. A clear relationship between the hardness of water and cardiovascular diseases was also reported [11,12,13]. It is crucial to maintain optimal hydration in order to ensure the normal functions of human body.…”

Calcium and Magnesium in Drinking Water as Risk Factors for Ischemic Heart Disease

“…Research done in Bosnia and Herzegovina showed significant correlation between the prevalence of CVD in the population group who drink soft water (the value of the relative risk (RR) is 1.127) [28].…”

Relationship Between Water Intake and Metabolic/Heart Diseases: Based on Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

“…Mineral-rich water contains antioxidants that could protect against metabolic syndromes [24]. Hard water can also reduce the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases [25]. However, this type of association could not be considered because the KHNANES does not investigate water type or hardness.…”