COVID-19 Peritraumatic Distress as a Function of Age and Gender in a Spanish Sample

Abstract

The sudden outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly altered the daily lives of the population with dramatic effects caused not only by the health risks of the coronavirus, but also by its psychological and social impact in large sectors of the worldwide population. The present study adapted the COVID-19 Peritraumatic Distress Index (CPDI) to the Spanish population, and 1094 Spanish adults (mean age 52.55 years, 241 males) completed the Spanish version in a cross-sectional online survey. To analyze the factorial structure and reliability of the CPDI, we performed an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) followed by a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the Spanish sample. The effects of gender and age on the degree of distress were analyzed using the factorial scores of the CPDI as the dependent variables. Results showed that, after rotation, the first factor (Stress symptoms) accounted for 35% of the total variance and the second factor (COVID-19 information) for 15%. Around 25% (n = 279) of the participants experienced mild to moderate distress symptoms, 16% (n = 179) severe distress, and about 58% (n = 636) showed no distress symptoms. Women experienced more distress than men (p<0.01), and distress decreased with age (p<0.01). We conclude that the CPDI seems a promising screening tool for the rapid detection of potential peritraumatic stress caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.

How Does Psychological Distress Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic Impact on Internet Addiction and Instagram Addiction in Emerging Adults?

“…Again, with regard to sex differences, the findings showed that boys had higher externally oriented thinking than girls. This result is in line with our hypotheses and several studies that found higher levels of alexithymia [ 131 ] and specifically of externally oriented thinking in male youths [ 132 ]. In this context, in accordance with the normative male alexithymia hypothesis posited by Levant [ 133 , 134 ], and supported by the recent scientific literature [ 135 ], males may be inclined to show more alexithymic traits than females due to gender-related social pressure, implying that males should not freely express difficult or attachment feelings.…”

“…Another possible explanation could be the fact that, as suggested by Bangasser et al [ 129 , 130 ], female gender represents a biological factor commonly associated with greater psychological vulnerability in the face of stressful life events, resulting in higher peritraumatic symptoms compared to males [ 131 ]. In line with our findings and the studies by Bonati et al [ 51 ] and Jiménez et al [ 132 ], this greater vulnerability to stress-related psychopathological sufferance has also been confirmed in relation to symptoms of peritraumatic distress due to COVID-19.…”

“…Prati and Mancini [ 137 ] conducted a meta-analysis of studies investigating the psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, finding great heterogeneity in studies’ results, suggesting that lockdowns have had different effects on mental health. However, our results supported the evidence that distress due to COVID-19 was higher among youths whereas it decreased with age [ 132 ], and that individuals’ psychological sufferance has increased as the pandemic has continued [ 56 , 57 , 138 ]. With regard to our second objective, our findings showed that emerging adults who experienced no distress related to the COVID-19 pandemic showed lower levels of alexithymia, and lower scores on Internet and Instagram addiction.…”

Evaluation of peritraumatic distress at the point of care: A cross-sectional study

“…With regard to sex, being male has shown to be a protective factor for peritraumatic distress, and this is consistent with the existing literature ( Al-Hanawi et al, 2020 ; Bonati et al, 2021 ; Gloster et al, 2020 ; Jiménez et al, 2021 ; Kafle et al, 2021 ; Marzo et al, 2021a , 2021b ; Qiu et al, 2020 ; Shrestha et al, 2020 ). Numerous studies have also shown a higher prevalence of symptoms of depressive and anxious spectrums in women ( Ribeiro et al, 2021 ).…”

“…Multivariate logistic regression revealed protective factors in age>35, the malesex, higher educational level, night sleep hours >7, and being physically active. Regarding the role of age, previous evidence revealed controversial results ( Parlapani et al, 2021 ), with some studies showing old age as a risk factor for peritraumatic distress ( Qiu et al, 2020 ; Shrestha et al, 2020 ), while other studies identified it as a protective factor ( Al-Hanawi et al, 2020 ; Costantini and Mazzotti, 2020 ; Gloster et al, 2020 ; Jiménez et al, 2021 ; Ramasubramanian et al, 2020 ), or did not find any significant association with age ( Megalakaki et al, 2021 ). A possible explanation for the decrease in the risk of peritraumatic distress with advancing age could be the greater knowledge of the older population with respect to epidemic events.…”