Crawling and Walking Infants See the World Differently

Kretch, Kari S.; Franchak, John M.; Adolph, Karen E.

doi:10.1111/cdev.12206

Cited by 247 publications

(237 citation statements)

References 66 publications

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“…Common sense intuition, endorsed by Piaget (1954), Gibson (1988), and Campos (2000), is that independent mobility allows infants to identify distal goal objects and employ crawling as a means to attain those goals. However, common sense intuition is not supported by recent observations (Adolph et al, 2012; Karasik et al, 2011; Kretch et al, in press) or the current studies. Natural infant locomotion—crawling or walking—does not consist of long paths terminating in arrival at a pre-specified goal.…”

Section: Discussioncontrasting

confidence: 99%

“…Sitting is an important facilitator of development because it opens up new opportunities for exploration and learning. The upright posture affords new views of the world and the people who inhabit it (Cashon, Ha, Allen, & Barna, 2013; Frank, Simmons, Yurovsky, & Pusiol, 2013; Kretch, Franchak, & Adolph, in press). The hands are freed from a supporting role, providing new opportunities for reaching, exploring objects, and learning about object properties (Gibson, 1988; Harbourne et al, 2013; Lobo & Galloway, 2008; Soska & Adolph, 2014).…”

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confidence: 99%

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A new twist on old ideas: how sitting reorients crawlers

Soska

Robinson

Adolph

2014

Developmental Science

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Traditionally, crawling and sitting are considered distinct motor behaviors with different postures and functions. Ten- to 12-month-old infants were observed in the laboratory or in their homes while being coaxed to crawl continuously over long, straight walkways (Study 1; N = 20) and during spontaneous crawling during free play (Study 2; N = 20). In every context, infants stopped crawling to sit 3-6 times per minute. Transitions from crawling to sitting frequently turned infants’ bodies away from the direction of heading; subsequent transitions back to crawling were offset by as much as 180° from the original direction of heading. Apparently, body reorientations result from the biomechanics of transitioning between crawling and sitting. Findings indicate that sustained, linear crawling is likely an epiphenomenon of how gait is studied in standard paradigms. Postural transitions between crawling and sitting are ubiquitous and can represent a functional unit of action. These transitions and the accompanying body reorientations likely have cascading effects for infants’ exploration, visual perception, and spatial cognition.

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Section: Discussioncontrasting

confidence: 99%

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confidence: 99%

A new twist on old ideas: how sitting reorients crawlers

Soska

Robinson

Adolph

2014

Developmental Science

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“…In other words, the transition from crawling to walking, as it is marked by the onsets of standing and walking, is a crucial period for the infant. Walking allows for a different perception of the world than crawling does (Kretch et al, 2014). The mentioned factors might also be related to executive functions without implying a direct link between motor development and executive functions development.…”

Section: Discussion Study IIImentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The emergence of new motor skills, such as reaching or walking, is important, as these skills offer new possibilities for action and perception. Reaching for an object presents opportunities to explore and manipulate different shapes and materials, for example, and walking allows infants to explore space and socially interact with others in a qualitatively different way (Adolph & Tamis-LeMonda, 2014;Kretch, Franchak, & Adolph, 2014;Thelen, 1995). According to the dynamical systems approach, these transitions in development (e.g.…”

Section: Motor Developmentmentioning

confidence: 99%

Infants in Control: Prospective Motor Control and Executive Functions in Action Development

Gottwald¹

2018

Preprint

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This thesis assesses the link between action and cognition early in development. Thus the notion of an embodied cognition is investigated by tying together two levels of action control in the context of reaching in infancy: prospective motor control and executive functions.The ability to plan our actions is the inevitable foundation of reaching our goals. Thus actions can be stratified on different levels of control. There is the relatively low level of prospective motor control and the comparatively high level of cognitive control. Prospective motor control is concerned with goal-directed actions on the level of single movements and movement combinations of our body and ensures purposeful, coordinated movements, such as reaching for a cup of coffee. Cognitive control, in the context of this thesis more precisely referred to as executive functions, deals with goal-directed actions on the level of whole actions and action combinations and facilitates directedness towards mid-and long-term goals, such as finishing a doctoral thesis. Whereas prospective motor control and executive functions are well studied in adulthood, the early development of both is not sufficiently understood.This thesis comprises three empirical motion-tracking studies that shed light on prospective motor control and executive functions in infancy. Study I investigated the prospective motor control of current actions by having 14-month-olds lift objects of varying weights. In doing so, multi-cue integration was addressed by comparing the use of visual and non-visual information to non-visual information only. Study II examined the prospective motor control of future actions in action sequences by investigating reach-to-place actions in 14-month-olds. Thus the extent to which Fitts' law can explain movement duration in infancy was addressed. Study III lifted prospective motor control to a higher that is cognitive level, by investigating it relative to executive functions in 18-months-olds.Main results were that 14-month-olds are able to prospectively control their manual actions based on object weight. In this action planning process, infants use different sources of information. Beyond this ability to prospectively control their current action, 14-month-olds also take future actions into account and plan their actions based on the difficulty of the subsequent action in action sequences. In 18-month-olds, prospective motor control in manual actions, such as reaching, is related to early executive functions, as demonstrated for behavioral prohibition and working memory. These findings are consistent with the idea that executive functions derive from prospective motor control. I suggest that executive functions could be grounded in the development of motor control. In other words, early executive functions should be seen as embodied.

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“…Human eye gaze has been correlated with visual focus of attention [8,9,11], and tends to agree with head direction. Kretch et al instrumented infants with eye trackers and found that most infant eye gaze fixations occur within the middle of the child's field of view [15]. Stiefelhagen et al performed a related study with four adults interacting at a meeting table, and found that eye gaze agreed 87% of the time with the direction of the subject's head [29].…”

Section: Related Workmentioning

confidence: 99%

Measuring Child Visual Attention using Markerless Head Tracking from Color and Depth Sensing Cameras

Bidwell

Essa

Rozga

et al. 2014

Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction

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A child's failure to respond to his or her name being called is an early warning sign for autism and response to name is currently assessed as a part of standard autism screening and diagnostic tools. In this paper, we explore markerless child head tracking as an unobtrusive approach for automatically predicting child response to name. Head turns are used as a proxy for visual attention. We analyzed 50 recorded response to name sessions with the goal of predicting if children, ages 15 to 30 months, responded to name calls by turning to look at an examiner within a defined time interval. The child's head turn angles and hand annotated child name call intervals were extracted from each session. Human assisted tracking was employed using an overhead Kinect camera, and automated tracking was later employed using an additional forward facing camera as a proof-of-concept. We explore two distinct analytical approaches for predicting child responses, one relying on rule-based approached and another on random forest classification. In addition, we derive child response latency as a new measurement that could provide researchers and clinicians with finer grain quantitative information currently unavailable in the field due to human limitations. Finally we reflect on steps for adapting our system to work in less constrained natural settings.

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Crawling and Walking Infants See the World Differently

Cited by 247 publications

References 66 publications

A new twist on old ideas: how sitting reorients crawlers

A new twist on old ideas: how sitting reorients crawlers

Infants in Control: Prospective Motor Control and Executive Functions in Action Development

Measuring Child Visual Attention using Markerless Head Tracking from Color and Depth Sensing Cameras

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