Cross-sectional Study on the Effects of Socioeconomic Factors on Lead Exposure in Children by Gender in Serpong, Indonesia

Abstract

To elucidate the socioeconomic factors influencing lead exposure in elementary school children by gender, 108 children (56 male, 52 female), aged 6–7 years, were randomly selected from 39 elementary state schools in Serpong, Banten, Indonesia. Their parents were interviewed to obtain information on sociodemographic characteristics. Their blood lead (BPb) levels were measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. BPb concentrations were significantly higher in males than in females, i.e., 6.8 ± 2.0 (2.9–12.5) µg/dL and 5.9 ± 1.9 (3.1–11.7) µg/dL, respectively (p < 0.05). Lower socioeconomic status and well water use were associated with increased BPb concentrations, especially in females. The proportion of well water use was related to lower socioeconomic status. Lower socioeconomic status linked with well water drinking seemed to be associated with increased lead exposure in children in Serpong. Their exposure levels possibly varied according to gender differences in behavior. An intervention should be instituted among children in Serpong with BPb concentrations of 10 µg/dL or above.

Evidence that birth weight is decreased by maternal lead levels below 5μg/dl in male newborns

“…Neuropsychological development is more often impaired in male children than in females [43][44][45]. In addition, we have observed that BPb is higher in male children [50]. Experimental animal studies have also demonstrated sex differences in the effects of lead.…”

Blood Lead Concentrations in Jamaican Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder

“…(2005) showed no statistically significant association between risk of ASD and socioeconomic status [ 85 ]. In addition, children with lower SES have been shown to have more exposure to chemical contaminants [ 86 ] including reported associations with increased blood lead concentrations in children with lower SES [ 87 , 88 ]. In our study, although we observed a significant association between ASD status and SES as well as sociodemographic indicators (maternal age, parental education levels, car ownership by the family, and parish at child’s birth), we did not find a significant association between the blood lead concentrations and the aforementioned SES and sociodemographic indicators.…”

Relationship of lead and essential elements in whole blood from school-age children in Nanning, China

“…Pb enters into the body mainly through the respiratory system and the digestive tract, and causes a series of documented adverse effects particularly in the nervous systems [4][5][6], such as developmental delays, insomnia, irritability, tremors, hearing loss, deficits in behavioral functioning, impaired cognitive and learning abilities, and social withdrawal [7][8][9]. Since children have underdeveloped and inadequate blood brain barrier, unrestricted Pb accumulation in the brain will eventually disrupt neural signal transduction and irreversibly damage the nervous system [10][11][12][13].…”