“…1.2 Literature review 1.2.1 Problems associated with deep learning In the field of perception and semantic understanding, deep learning (DL) is one of the mainstream technologies which has been used widely in practice. In transportation-related tasks, DL has been extensively adopted in applications including infrastructure management (Hou et al, 2020;Zhuang et al, 2018), traffic prediction (Cui et al, 2019;Liu et al, 2019;Yu et al, 2020a;Zhou et al, 2021), driver behavior modeling (Xing et al, 2021), smart routing systems (Du et al, 2021), smart intersection management (Peng et al, 2021) and traffic incident and duration recognition (Zhu et al, 2021). With respect to autonomous driving tasks, DL models have been applied in every submodule (Figure 1).…”