Damage or protection? The role of smoked crust on sandstones from Yungang Grottoes

Zhang, Hui; Shi, Meifeng; Shen, Wei; Li, Zhiguo; Zhang, Bingjian; Liu, Renzhi; Zhang, Runping

doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.09.031

Cited by 20 publications

(13 citation statements)

References 13 publications

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“…The capillary water absorption coefficient could be calculated from the equation Δ m = C * At 0.5 , where C is the water absorption coefficient and A is the bottom area of the tabia sample (Zhang et al 2013). The results of capillary water absorption coefficient was divided into three parts.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

What Factors Contribute to High Mechanical Strength of Tabia? Case Study of the Tabia from Coastal Forts Sites at Zhejiang, China

Zhang

Cui

et al. 2020

Preprint

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Tabia is one of the most widely used construction materials in ancient China. In this work, the tabia samples from three coastal defense fort sites at Zhejiang Province, China, we analyzed to determine their component composition and physiochemical properties. The results show that these tabia samples exhibited high compressive strength, which could be as high as 4-9 MPa. Furthermore, the systematic analysis demonstrated that the high compressive strength was related to the following factors: 1) a suitable mass ratio of sand, lime, and clay; 2) an appropriate sand particle size ratio; and 3) the formation of hydrated calcium silicate (C-S-H). Moreover, sticky rice was also detected in the tabia samples. These findings are fundamentally important, which could be beneficial to further study of the craftsmanship of the coastal defense forts and could further provide essential guidance for the protection and restoration of the tabia relics.

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Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

What Factors Contribute to High Mechanical Strength of Tabia? Case Study of the Tabia from Coastal Forts Sites at Zhejiang, China

Zhang

Cui

et al. 2020

Preprint

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“…In some occasions, the damage layers related to the deposition of combustion particles are related to the past use of the building, and not to modern traffic emissions e.g. in the Buddhist statues of the Yunguang Grottoes, China [119].…”

Section: Cases Of Soiling Indoorsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Fine particulate matter in indoor cultural heritage: a literature review

Grau-Bové

Strlič

2013

Herit Sci

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Fine particulate matter is, on account of its aerodynamic properties and typical composition (especially diesel particulate matter and carbonaceous particles) the particulate pollutant potentially most harmful to cultural heritage, representing an aesthetic issue and an agent of chemical degradation simultaneously. This paper reviews the current knowledge of the life-cycle of fine particulates, focussing on diesel particulate matter from emission to deposition, including its aesthetic and chemical consequences, and draws attention to some imbalances in the current state of research. The currently available measurements are biased towards coarse dust, and information on the consequences of particle deposition is largely restricted to the outdoor environment. More evidence on the chemical effects of the most common types of fine particulate matter in typical indoor materials is needed to enable risk assessment for indoor collections.

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“…With a 1500-year history and famous for splendid stone carving arts relating to Buddha statues, the Yungang Grottoes were added to the world heritage list made by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 2001 and visited by more than 1,500,000 tourists per year since then [1]. The grottoes, which include 45 major caves, 252 shrines, and approximately 51,000 sculptures, mainly made from sandstone [2], have suffered from weathering and deterioration over time due to both natural and human factors [3][4][5]. Weathering or deterioration were classified into 12 types by Liu et al [3], of which, dust deposits and black crust were most common, accounting for approximately 62% (~ 4300 m 2 ) of the contaminated area; salt crystallization (approximately 31%, ~ 2200 m 2 ), yellow stains (approximately 2%, ~ 160 m 2 ), residual resins (2%), scrawling (2%) and other types (1% or so) were also present.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…It is suggested that airborne SO 2 , NO x , particulate matter and black smudges of smoke contributed to the deterioration [6,7]. In particular, airborne SO 2 and NO x are transformed into sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) and nitric acid (HNO 3 ) (or sulfates and nitrates) in the presence of moisture when they were absorbed on particulate matter or on the surface of sculptures [4], which results in the acidification or salt erosion of stone relics [8]. Yang et al [9] investigated the mass concentrations and watersoluble ions of ambient fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) in different seasons in the Yungang Grottoes and found that the daily average PM 2.5 concentrations were often larger than 35 μg m −3 (especially in winter) and the particles, which contained large amounts of SO 4 2− and NO 3 − , were slightly acidic, implying that the influence of the acidic substances on the stone relics should not be ignored.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Acid solution decreases the compressional wave velocity of sandstone from the Yungang Grottoes, Datong, China

et al. 2019

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To understand the effects of an acidic environment on the internal structure of sandstone from the Yungang Grottoes, Datong, China, the physicochemical properties of fresh and weathered sandstone samples and their compressional wave (P-wave) velocities in response to different concentrations of H 2 SO 4 and HNO 3 solution were investigated. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and a scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (SEM-EDX) were used to determine grain morphology and chemical composition. The results show that the sandstone, which mainly consists of silicon dioxide and calcium carbonate, became more complicated in composition after weathering. A nonmetallic ultrasonic detector was used to measure the P-wave velocities of sandstones in a natural state and soaked with ultrapure water and with H 2 SO 4 and HNO 3 at concentrations of 0.2 mol L −1 , 0.4 mol L −1 , and 0.8 mol L −1 , respectively. For the acid-treated groups, with increasing acidity, P-wave velocity decreased significantly, compressive strength decreased and effective porosity increased; these behaviours are different from those of the water-treat group, implying that the acid solutions damaged the microstructure of the sandstone. The results suggest that the deterioration risk of H 2 SO 4 and HNO 3 , or sulfates and nitrates converted from ambient SO 2 , NO x and PM 2.5 , on the stone relics in the Yungang Grottoes should be a cause for concern.

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Damage or protection? The role of smoked crust on sandstones from Yungang Grottoes

Cited by 20 publications

References 13 publications

What Factors Contribute to High Mechanical Strength of Tabia? Case Study of the Tabia from Coastal Forts Sites at Zhejiang, China

What Factors Contribute to High Mechanical Strength of Tabia? Case Study of the Tabia from Coastal Forts Sites at Zhejiang, China

Fine particulate matter in indoor cultural heritage: a literature review

Acid solution decreases the compressional wave velocity of sandstone from the Yungang Grottoes, Datong, China

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