Defensive pessimism: Harnessing anxiety as motivation.

Abstract

In this article we discuss the strategies that people may use to cope with situations that are risky in that they present the possibility for failure and potential threats to self-esteem. Previous research has indicated that anxiety (Sarason, 1980) and explicitly set low expectations (Sherman, Skov, Hervitz, & Stock, 1981) may lead to performance deficits in these situations. Experiment 1 indicates, in contrast, that with a strategy called defensive pessimism (Norem & Cantor, 1986), individuals may sometimes use low expectations to cope with their anxiety so that it does not become debilitating. A second experiment further supports the contention that low expectations may help individuals negotiate risky situations by showing that interference with the defensive-pessimism strategy impairs performance. Subjects whose strategic construction of the situation was not interfered with do not show impaired performance. These data are interpreted as evidence that the effects of low expectations and high anxiety on performance may be mediated by the strategies individuals use when approaching risky situations.

The pain was greater if it will happen again: The effect of anticipated continuation on retrospective discomfort.

“…Finally, inconsistent with an account relying on the cold-to-hot empathy gap, but consistent with a bracing explanation, we find that only anticipation of the same experience Since the results of this study are consistent with a bracing account of the anticipation effect, but not with a cold-to-hot empathy gap account, the next three experiments test predictions that can be directly derived from the bracing explanation. Prior research indicates that bracing and other forms of defensive pessimism require both time and resources to manifest (Norem & Cantor, 1986b;Norem & Illingworth, 1993). Therefore, in the next two studies, we manipulate time to brace and the availability of self-regulatory resources.…”

“…In addition to the strategic optimism we described earlier, people also often exhibit defensive pessimism (Norem & Cantor, 1986a). Specifically, when faced with an upcoming aversive experience, some people choose to expect the worst in hopes of creating a less extreme contrast between their expectations and reality (Norem & Cantor, 1986b). Since people are generally more upset by unexpected negative events than expected ones (Feather, 1966), this type of strategy may increase subsequent well-being.…”

Conscious thought is for facilitating social and cultural interactions: How mental simulations serve the animal–culture interface.

“…The capacity for conscious simulations to influence behavior may be bolstered by exaggerations of the severity of future feelings (Ainslie, 2007). Given that a mental simulation is only a watered-down version of actual experience, the boost in expectations about future pain may serve as additional motivation to avoid the negative consequences (e.g., defensive pessimism; Norem & Cantor, 1986).…”

Neural correlates of ‘pessimistic’ attitude in depression

“…This appears to be valid also from an evolutionary perspective, as our antecedents had a better chance to survive when they were prepared to cope, for instance, with predators or a hard winter. Thus, pessimism, meaning to expect the disadvantageous outcome when facing events of unknown emotional impact, seems to have positive facets (Nesse, 2000), such as diminishing of risk behaviour (Gibson & Sanbonmatsu, 2004) and avoidance of disappointment by setting low expectations (Norem & Cantor, 1986 ;Shepperd & McNulty, 2002). However, the overly pronounced expectation that the future will be unpleasant also represents a key cognitive feature in major depression (Pyszczynski et al 1987 ;Lavender & Watkins, 2004).…”