Biofilms can be pervasive and problematic
in water treatment and
distribution systems but are difficult to eradicate due to hindered
penetration of antimicrobial chemicals. Here, we demonstrate that
indigenous prophages activated by low-intensity plasma have the potential
for efficient bacterial inactivation and biofilm disruption. Specifically,
low-intensity plasma treatment (i.e., 35.20 W) elevated the intracellular
oxidative reactive species (ROS) levels by 184%, resulting in the
activation of prophage lambda (λ) within antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli K-12 (lambda+) [E.
coli (λ+)]. The phage activation efficiency
was 6.50-fold higher than the conventional mitomycin C induction.
Following a cascading effect, the activated phages were released upon
the lysis of E. coli (λ+), which
propagated further and lysed phage-susceptible E. coli K-12 (lambda−) [E. coli (λ−)]
within the biofilm. Bacterial intracellular ROS analysis and ROS scavenger
tests revealed the importance of plasma-generated ROS (e.g., •OH, 1O2, and •O2
–) and associated intracellular oxidative
stress on prophage activation. In a mixed-species biofilm on a permeable
membrane surface, our “inside-out” strategy could inactivate
total bacteria by 49% and increase the membrane flux by 4.33-fold.
Furthermore, the metagenomic analysis revealed that the decrease in
bacterial abundance was closely associated with the increase in phage
levels. As a proof-of-concept, this is the first demonstration of
indigenous prophage activations by low-intensity plasma for antibiotic-resistant
bacterial inactivation and biofilm eradication, which opens up a new
avenue for managing associated microbial problems.