Democracy and Super Technologies: The Politics of the Space Shuttle and Space Station Freedom

Abstract

A significant share of the U.S. federal R&D budget is devoted to large-scale, complex technological systems commonly referred to as "big science. " Over the last two decades, these systems have continued to grow in size, complexity, development time, and cost. At the same time, political changes in the United States, particularly the concern over government spending and the federal budget deficit, have made it more difficult for proponents to secure and preserve support for these programs over their (increasingly long) lifetimes. Using the U.S. space shuttle and space station programs as examples, the article shows that the political requirements for obtaining approval and funding for large and expensive research and development projects create conditions that reduce the likelihood that they will succeed technologically. The problems of technology-based projects like those of the U.S. space program are in fact deeply rooted in the American political process itself.The last several years have not been very kind to proponents of large-scale technologies, especially those developed, operated, or regulated by governments. Beginning with the nuclear power plant accident at Three Mile Island, there have been many reports of failures, breakdowns, and delays (not to mention outright catastrophes) in technology-based programs, including the U.S. space shuttle, the Stealth fighter-bomber, the Hubble Space Telescope, and the Freedom space station. The various congressional, presidential, and external bodies investigating these incidents more often than not attributed them to some combination of poor management, improper oversight, or failed communication within the relevant organizations. The general impression left by such findings is that the problems with these systems are largely administrative in nature, and that technical breakdown or human error would occur less frequently (or would be more readily detected) if the programs in question were simply run more efficiently.

Inscribing Bodies, Inscribing the Future: Gender, Sex, and Reproduction in Outer Space

“…Yet, a humorous depiction of the missing Mars Observer on the back of a milk carton, usually reserved for exploited and/or missing children, ironically demonstrates the displacement and replacement of certain social issues by others. Such representations are situated within the crisis of shrinking federal allocations to the space program (Anderson 1994;Kay 1994). Also unclear at the present time is how controversy over the Hubble telescope will affect NASA in the long run.…”

Co-creating and directing Innovation Ecosystems? NASA's changing approach to public-private partnerships in low-earth orbit

“…NASA proposed a large space station in LEO that would be much than the Soviet Salyut program (1971)(1972)(1973)(1974)(1975)(1976)(1977)(1978)(1979)(1980)(1981)(1982) and would compete with what would become Space Station Mir. The initial idea was to reinforce US progress in space and to exploit the commercial potential of low Earth orbit (Kay 1994). In his State of the Union speech in 1984, President Reagan announced that part of the US space policy would include "NASA to develop a permanently manned space station and to do it within a decade" (Kay 1994).…”

“…The initial idea was to reinforce US progress in space and to exploit the commercial potential of low Earth orbit (Kay 1994). In his State of the Union speech in 1984, President Reagan announced that part of the US space policy would include "NASA to develop a permanently manned space station and to do it within a decade" (Kay 1994). With this pronouncement, the Space Station Freedom program was launched with a commercial space habitat module included in the design.…”

Les activités spatiales, objet sociologique

“…Dans l'ensemble, la compréhension de la fabrique des « politiques spatiales » ne peut passer que par l'analyse détaillée des négociations et arrangements entre les agences et les gouvernements, marqués par la contingence et les hésitations (et donc loin de la rhétorique de la nécessité ou de l'évidence des discours valorisant, a posteriori, les décisions prises). Les exemples du Space Shuttle et de la station Freedom illustrent cette sinuosité du processus de décision, aboutissant à un compromis entre logiques politiques et techno-scientifiques 43 . Le travail sociologique permet cependant de repérer les principaux thèmes de cette harmonie adaptée à l'air du temps : il est toujours question des impacts « sociétaux »de l'exploration spatiale, qu'ils soient envisagés dans les termes du rapport au savoir ou dans ceux du développement économique.…”