Depressive Symptoms among Middle-Aged Women—Understanding the Cause

Abstract

Menopause is an important event in a woman’s life associated with hormonal changes that play a substantial role in the functioning of her body. A decline in the level of estrogens contributes to depressive symptoms and mood disorders during this period. The severity of depressive symptoms experienced by middle-aged women depends on many factors, including sociodemographic data (e.g., menopause, employment status, and marital status) and genetic variables (MAO-A and 5-HTT gene polymorphisms). In order to assess their influence on the development of depression in females, we analyzed 1453 healthy Polish women in different stages of menopause. Based on the results, we found that the l/l + l/s inheritance model for the 5-HTT gene polymorphism was more common in women without and with moderate depressive symptoms according to the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), while the l/s model was more often observed in women with mild depression. Moreover, the overdominant 3/3 + 4/4 genotype of the MAO-A gene polymorphism was more often found in respondents without depressive symptoms, while women with depressive symptoms had more often the overdominant 3/4 genotype.

Hypertension and Low Body Weight Are Associated with Depressive Symptoms Only in Females: Findings from the Shika Study

“…A reason for this sex difference is that, in menopausal women, a reduction in sex hormones is associated with hypertension [ 36 , 37 , 38 ] and depression [ 39 , 40 ]. An investigation of healthy Polish women in various stages of menopause by Cybulska et al [ 41 ]. showed that specific genotypes are related to depressive symptoms.…”

MAOA‐LPR polymorphism and math anxiety: A marker of genetic susceptibility to social influences in girls?

“…Moreover, in some studies, the MAOA-H/H genotype was considered implicated; 62,63,65,66,[84][85][86] whereas in other studies, the risk genotype identified was MAOA-L/L. 64,87,88 Such contradictory results may reflect issues with rather small sample sizes, the use of different instruments, and consideration of varying covariates and random effects included (or not) in the models.…”

“…On the one hand, an association of the MAOA‐L genotype and externalizing behavior disorders, including impulsivity, aggressiveness, and antisocial behavior, has been consistently reported for males 10,41,42,45,48,59–61 . On the other hand, although less consistently, the MAOA‐LPR promoter polymorphism has been associated with decreased emotional stability and internalizing disorders, such as depression and anxiety in women 62–66 . Considering what was discussed above, we pursued the hypothesis that the MAOA‐LPR polymorphism may also contribute to explaining the female susceptibility to MA.…”

“…10,41,42,45,48,[59][60][61] On the other hand, although less consistently, the MAOA-LPR promoter polymorphism has been associated with decreased emotional stability and internalizing disorders, such as depression and anxiety in women. [62][63][64][65][66] Considering what was discussed above, we pursued the hypothesis that the MAOA-LPR polymorphism may also contribute to explaining the female susceptibility to MA.…”

The Relationship between Social Support and Mental Health Problems of Peri- and Postmenopausal Women during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic

“…Hormonal changes taking place in a woman's body significantly affect everyday functioning; moreover, there are many controversies regarding the role of menopause in the development of depression and anxiety [4]. It is worth noting that although there is an increased risk of clinical and subclinical depression during the period of reduced estrogen levels, its occurrence should not be directly attributed to menopause, but to various factors, including neurotransmitters, sociodemographic variables [17], psychosocial variables [18], personality traits [19] or genome [20,21].…”