Detecting Ground Level Enhancements Using Soil Moisture Sensor Networks

Abstract

Ground level enhancements (GLEs) are space weather events that pose a potential hazard to the aviation environment through single event effects (SEE) in avionics and increased dose to passengers and crew. The existing ground level neutron monitoring network provides continuous and well-characterised measurements of the radiation environment. However, there are only a few dozen active stations worldwide, and there hasn't been a UK-based station for several decades. Much smaller neutron detectors are increasingly deployed throughout the world with the purpose of using secondary neutrons from cosmic rays to monitor local soil moisture conditions (COSMOS). Space weather signals from ground level enhancements (GLEs) and Forbush decreases have been identified in COSMOS data. Monte Carlo simulations of atmospheric radiation propagation show that a single COSMOS detector is sufficient to detect the signal of a medium-strength (10-100% increase above background) ground level enhancement (GLE) at high statistical significance, including at fine temporal resolution. Use of fine temporal resolution would also provide a capability to detect Terrestrial Gamma Ray Flashes (via secondary neutrons) which are produced by certain lightning discharges and which can provide a hazard to aircraft, particularly in tropical regions. We also show how the COSMOS-UK detector network could be used to provide warnings at the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) "Moderate" and "Severe" dose rate thresholds at aviation altitudes, and how multiple-detector hubs situated at strategic UK locations could detect a small GLE at high statistical significance and infer crucial information on the nature of the primary spectrum.

Empirical analysis of machine learning-based moisture sensing platforms for agricultural applications: A statistical perspective

“…These models utilize high-speed sensors, which might be costly, but provide quicker results when compared with other sensing models. Similarly, scalability of these models is also evaluated, which indicates that CM [11] has the highest scalability, which is followed by DBN RBM [2], SMAP [18], SMAP RF DN [19], GOFCHS [27], SAR [29], SMI MODIS [30], SSMDI [33], P Band & L Band [34], and MSNs [39] models.…”

“…While highly accurate sensing interfaces are costly, but can be used for high-speed moisture sensing applications. Specifically, DBN RBM, CRNS, SMAP LEWS LR [1] DBN RBM [2] LR RBM [2] BP RBM [2] CRNS [3] FBG [4] MWMS [5] HPCM [6] GPS [7] UHF RFID [8] HF RFID TFS [9] PWM [10] CM [11] PPMR [12] PLMR [12] RFID UHF [13] MSR [14] PMMA [15] FFCSM [16] PHS [17] SMAP [18] SMAP RF DN [19] FoS [20] MHPS [21] PRS [22] ECT [24] PQCWC [25] HDES [26] GOFCHS [27] TDR [28] SAR [29] SMI MODIS [30] CSMOS [31] HSAAA [32] SSMDI [33] P Band & L Band [34] FTO [35] eSMAP [36] PBG [38] MSNs [39] MSOCCML [40] SMAP TFC [41] CRNS [42] kCRNS [43] Computational RF DN, GOFCHS, TDR, and P Band & L Band models outperform other models; thus, they can be used for highly accurate moisture detection applications. While, HPCM, HF RFID TFS, PWM, PMMA, FFCSM, MHPS, ECT, PQCWC, ...…”

“…Applications of moisture sensing are discussed in [37,38,39], wherein researchers have deployed moisture sensors for identification of flood prone areas, use of photonic band gap (PBG) with metal organic framework, and ground level enhancement estimation via moisture sensor networks (MSNs). Here, PBG is used for high accuracy, laboratory applications, while MSNs are deployed for large-scale & accurate sensing of moisture levels, which assists in improving their applicability for a wide variety of deployment scenarios.…”

A New Model for Nowcasting the Aviation Radiation Environment With Comparisons to In Situ Measurements During GLEs

“…For MAIRE+ we chose to take a balanced approach between accuracy and simplicity for rapid calculations. Previous work has shown that it is possible to infer spectral information for a GLE using only two neutron detectors based on the ground, provided there is sufficient spread in the cut‐off rigidity of the two locations (Hands et al., 2021). This is achieved by comparing the relative increases at the two different locations to a model prediction as a function of spectral index (and is thus valid worldwide only if isotropy is assumed).…”

Buoy‐Based Detection of Low‐Energy Cosmic‐Ray Neutrons to Monitor the Influence of Atmospheric, Geomagnetic, and Heliospheric Effects

“…However, the simulations from Köhli et al (2021) were also insufficient to conclude on a final choice out of many offered correction models. Moreover, many authors have found inconsistencies in using the neutron monitor "Jungfraujoch" in Switzerland as a reference for the incoming cosmic-ray flux at different periods and locations on Earth (e.g., Hands et al, 2021;Hawdon et al, 2014;Schrön, 2017). The main reason is the dependence of the cosmic-ray flux on the geomagnetic field, which changes continuously in space and time (Belov et al, 2005;Herbst et al, 2013;Kudela, 2012).…”