Direct Sensor Orientation for Large Scale Mapping—Potential, Problems, Solutions

Abstract

Georeferencing is one of the most important tasks in photogrammetry. Traditionally it has been achieved indirectly using the well‐known method of aerial triangulation. With the availability of integrated GPS and inertial measurement units (IMU), this situation changed. Direct determination of exterior orientation is now possible. Today, direct and integrated sensor orientation is used for a wide range of sensors including lidar and SAR, as well as for digital line scanner systems and aerial cameras. This paper investigates the performance of direct and integrated sensor orientation for large scale mapping using the data‐set of the ‘‘Integrated Sensor Orientation’’ test of the European Organisation for Experimental Photogrammetric Research (OEEPE—now known as EuroSDR). The concept, potential, problems and solutions of direct and integrated sensor orientation are discussed.

Georeferenced Point Clouds: A Survey of Features and Point Cloud Management

“…The emission direction is measured in the sensor coordinate system. Together with the exterior orientation of the platform (mobile or static), the location of the backscatter can be computed in the global coordinate system, thus providing the three coordinates (x, y, z) via direct georeferencing [12]. In discrete return laser scanning, also a measure of the backscatter strength is often provided as the digital number (DN).…”

“…An example showing a point cloud from semi-global image matching with the recorded color is given in Figure 1b. The georeferencing of point clouds obtained by image matching is supplied either indirectly by ground control points (GCPs, [24]), directly by "direct geo-referencing" [12,25] or by "integrated geo-referencing", exploiting control points and direct observations of the sensor's exterior orientation [26]. The quality of different approaches is further investigated in Heipke et al [27].…”

Using Vertical Panoramic Images to Record a Historic Cemetery

“…The misalignment angles between IMU and the camera photogrammetric reference system, also called boresight misalignment, must be included into the system calibration, since it is unfeasible to determine it with direct measurements. Boresight misalignment and the inner orientation have to be determined over a controlled reference area (Yastikli and Jacobsen, 2005).…”

Evaluation of positioning error-induced pixel shifts on satellite linear push-broom imagery

“…1 Traditionally, indirect georeferencing has been performed on frame images to acquire the EOPs which contain information about position and attitude, and then applies either spatial resection for a single view or the well-known aerial triangulation for multiple views. 2 However, this procedure requires numerous ground control points (GCPs) which are expensive to acquire and time-consuming to process. 3 Furthermore, with the increasing demand of high-spatial resolution remote sensing imagery, classical frame sensors are gradually replaced by linear push-broom sensors, thus the traditional indirect georeferencing became unsuitable since every scan line of a linear push-broom sensor has an independent set of EOPs and it would require too many constraints to satisfy the mathematical relationship.…”