Disposable Electrochemical Sensors for Highly Sensitive Detection of Chlorpromazine in Human Whole Blood Based on the Silica Nanochannel Array Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode

Abstract

Rapid and highly sensitive quantitative analysis of chlorpromazine (CPZ) in human whole blood is of great importance for human health. Herein, we utilize the screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCE) as the electrode substrates for growth of highly electroactive and antifouling nanocomposite materials consisting of vertically ordered mesoporous silica films (VMSF) and electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (ErGO) nanosheets. The preparation of such VMSF/ErGO/SPCE could be performed by using an electrochemical method in a few seconds and the operation is controllable. Inner ErGO layer converted from graphene oxide (GO) in the growth process of VMSF provides oxygen-containing groups and two-dimensional π-conjugated planar structure for stable fabrication of outer VMSF layer. Owing to the π-π enrichment and excellent electrocatalytic abilities of ErGO, electrostatic preconcentration and antifouling capacities of VMSF, and inherent disposable and miniaturized properties of SPCE, the proposed VMSF/ErGO/SPCE sensor could be applied for quantitative determination of CPZ in human whole blood with high accuracy and sensitivity, good stability, and low sample consumption.

Composite Silica‐Based Films as Platforms for Electrochemical Sensors

“…[121,123-À 125,128,130,138,142,147,149,153,155,156] Many examples are given in Table 3 for the determination of various analytes, including drugs or pharmaceuticals, [128,130,138,146] neurotransmitters [121,164] or other biologically relevant molecules, [121,153,156,164] pesticides, [124,142,144,148,149,155] and hydroquinone derivatives. [123,125] In many cases, the analytical procedure clearly involves the accumulation of the analyte in the film prior to its electrochemical detection on the electrode substrate (i. e., by electrostatic binding of cations [121,128,130,142,146,148,149,153,164] or the formation of hydrogen bonds [123,125,153,155] or both, [156] or via electrooligomerization [144] ), but in some cases it is difficult to make a real distinction between a possible preconcentration in the film and a direct electrocatalytic detection on the nanocarbon surface, both being expected to enhance the voltammetric signals. Also, synergetic effects and electrocatalytic behaviour are sometimes claimed [124,142,149] but rarely demonstrated by both a signal enhancement and a noticeable decrease in the overpotentials.…”

“…They will be noted as vertically‐oriented mesoporous silica film (VMSF) hereafter. Several kinds of composite films can be distinguished: (1) those made of the mesoporous silica film filled with the organic template used for its synthesis (mainly surfactants [25–27,33,137] but also coordination polymers [183] ), mainly deposited on flat electrode surfaces as indium‐tin oxide (ITO) [163,164,173,175,177,178] or electrodeposited as nanocomposite films around reduced graphene oxide; [125] (2) those made of surfactant‐extracted mesoporous silica electrodeposited as nanocomposite films around various kinds of nanocarbons (reduced graphene oxide, three‐dimensional graphene, carbon nanotubes or graphene‐carbon nanotube assemblies); [121,123–−125,128,130,138,140,146,149,153,155,156] (3) a wide range of chemically modified mesoporous silica films that can be basically divided further in two categories depending on whether they contain organo‐functional groups (either weakly immobilized [126,129,139,145,162,165,166,169,171,172,176,179,180] or strongly attached via covalent bonds [116,118–−120,122,126,127,131,133,134,136,137,143,147,150−152,157,160,161,174] ) or serve as hosts for nano‐objects (such as polymers [140,141,158] or nanoparticles [159,167,168,170,181,182] ); and (4) other composites made of ordered silica films combined with other nanomaterials (such as clays, [117,132,135] for instance). An illustrative summary of the various sensing applications of composite electrodes made of VMSF materials, respectively with filled pores, open pores and functionalized pores, is given in Figure 4.…”

“…Another strategy is the electrochemical activation of carbon supports to generate surface‐active groups likely to ensure the durable attachment of EASA‐produced mesoporous silica films [188] . This has been largely applied to the electro‐assisted deposition of VMSF around nanocarbon supports and the use of the resulting nanocomposite films for electrochemical sensing [121,123–−125,128,130,138,142,147,149,153,155,156] …”

Sensitive Electrochemical Detection of Carcinoembryonic Antigen Based on Biofunctionalized Nanochannel Modified Carbonaceous Electrode

“…These characteristics give VMSF a fast mass transfer ability and selectivity based on size and charge [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ]. For instance, the ultra-small nanochannel of VMSF can exclude larger proteins or particles, exhibiting size sieving effects [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. A signal-decreased sensing mode can be fabricated by generating large-sized substances during the detection process, hindering the migration of small molecular probes into the nanochannels [ 39 , 40 , 41 ].…”

Sensitive detection of noradrenaline in human whole blood based on Au nanoparticles embedded vertically-ordered silica nanochannels modified pre-activated glassy carbon electrodes

“…However, silica structure of VMSF only has electrostatic adsorption towards cationic compounds or weak coordination for metal ions, ( Ma et al, 2022b ; Luo et al, 2022 ; Yang et al, 2022 ; Zhang et al, 2022 ), lacking specific responsiveness and photoelectric activity. Despite modification and functionalization of nanochannels by introducing functional groups (e.g., amino groups) ( Ma et al, 2022c ) or small molecular compounds (e.g., ferrocene), ( Vilà and Walcarius, 2015 ), the incorporation of VMSF with specific nanomaterials is potential to improve the performance of VMSF-based sensors ( Han et al, 2022 ; Zou et al, 2022 ).…”