Do Migrant Parents’ Income or Relationships With Their Left-Behind Children Compensate for Their Physical Absence?

Abstract

Parental migration from rural to cities in China is causing millions of children to be left behind or to live without parental care, support, and guidance, which violates the Convention on the Rights of the Child. This national phenomenon has consequences for the household registration system, known as the hukou system, which is meant to restrain internal migration. These consequences may result in economic and social imbalances. However, a noticeable number of children have been completely or partially left behind by their parents in villages, and as a result, their relationship with their parents and their academic attainment are weak. In particular, this study examines whether migrant parents can improve the academic performance of their Left-Behind Children (LBC) by strengthening their relationship with their children or by sending adequate remittances to the village household. Astonishingly, the structural equation model (SEM) results indicate that LBCs from both parents migrating households are the more privileged groups, although the study underlines that still, all LBC are disadvantaged compared to non-LBC.

Left-Behind Children’s Positive and Negative Social Adjustment: A qualitative Study in China

“…The current study revealed that the pattern of LBCs’ social adjustment was neither positive nor negative as mounting evidence indicated that the disadvantaged children were prone to a broad array of adverse social outcomes; nevertheless, they developed the resilience to respond to adversity and adjust to their environment [ 34 ]. Effective parent–child interaction after being left behind also had a compensation effect on LBCs’ well adjustment [ 35 ]. In addition, though we found that LBC experienced negative emotional states and poor academic performances, they could still balance the needs of the school, family, and society.…”

COVID-19 and Vulnerable Children Well-Being: Interview with Left-Behind Children in Rural China

“…Concerning the rural parents’ migration, the size of remittance is an essential matter for left-behind children and their migrant parents. Most participants confirmed that their parents’ motives for moving to an urban locality were to meet their family’s obligations [ 49 ]. The psychological state of LBC is further subdivided into LBC’s view of COVID and LBC’s parents during COVID.…”

“…In addition, migrant workers in China face particularly severe problems and challenges under the pandemic restrictions, and their unstable employment, income, and life security circumstances have worsened [ 24 ]. Most migrant parents became stuck in their home villages after returning for Chinese spring festival celebrations, and another group became trapped in their workplaces, and could not return to their homes [ 16 , 24 , 49 , 50 ]. A two-province survey study by Wang et al assessed LBC; rural children who lived with both parents showed lower loneliness during the COVID-19 outbreak [ 23 , 50 ].…”

“…In contrast, during the national quarantine period, non-LBC could obtain more consideration and focus from their parents, which supported the parent-child relationship [ 23 , 44 ]. During the preliminary COVID-19 outbreak, LBC online learning motivation and engagement were primarily poor, as caregiver grandparents found it difficult to support and guide online learning via electronic devices, and follow-up by migrant parents was complicated by the pandemic [ 23 , 49 ]. Subsequently, due to poor communication between migrant parents and LBC regarding controlling the pandemic, the children faced a substantial fear of COVID-19, depression, stress, and anxiety [ 16 , 32 , 43 , 45 , 46 , 49 , 50 ].…”

“…During the preliminary COVID-19 outbreak, LBC online learning motivation and engagement were primarily poor, as caregiver grandparents found it difficult to support and guide online learning via electronic devices, and follow-up by migrant parents was complicated by the pandemic [ 23 , 49 ]. Subsequently, due to poor communication between migrant parents and LBC regarding controlling the pandemic, the children faced a substantial fear of COVID-19, depression, stress, and anxiety [ 16 , 32 , 43 , 45 , 46 , 49 , 50 ]. Meta-analysis evidence indicated that LBCs were the most disadvantaged group of vulnerable children in China, as no one near them could perceive abnormal behavior or countermeasures [ 47 ].…”