2021
DOI: 10.1177/00472875211028321
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Do Regional Trade Agreements Enhance International Tourism Flows? Evidence from a Cross-Country Analysis

Abstract: This study investigates the effect of regional trade agreements (RTAs)—including preferential and free trade agreements, customs unions, and common markets—on bilateral tourism flows. We explore these effects using a panel gravity data set of 163 destination countries, 171 source countries, and 13,589 country-pairs from 1995 to 2015. This is the first large cross-country study to undertake such an integrated analysis using the gravity framework. Results show that all types of RTAs have a positive and significa… Show more

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Cited by 26 publications
(15 citation statements)
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References 93 publications
(140 reference statements)
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“…Indeed, this database does not differentiate between zeros or missing values because for some specific years/country-pairs it reports missing data but for some other it just aggregates arrivals from specific regions. Saayman et al (2016), Khalid, Okafor, and Burzynska (2021), or Okafor, Tan, and Khalid (2021) deal with this issue by assuming that the UNWTO does not record tourism flows below a specific threshold, and so they consider data to be zero or close to zero for small tourism flows. However, this strategy could not provide efficient estimates because aggregations in "other countries" are not negligible in certain cases and the specific threshold for not reporting tourism flows is not the same for all destination countries.…”
Section: Econometric Methodsmentioning
confidence: 99%
See 1 more Smart Citation
“…Indeed, this database does not differentiate between zeros or missing values because for some specific years/country-pairs it reports missing data but for some other it just aggregates arrivals from specific regions. Saayman et al (2016), Khalid, Okafor, and Burzynska (2021), or Okafor, Tan, and Khalid (2021) deal with this issue by assuming that the UNWTO does not record tourism flows below a specific threshold, and so they consider data to be zero or close to zero for small tourism flows. However, this strategy could not provide efficient estimates because aggregations in "other countries" are not negligible in certain cases and the specific threshold for not reporting tourism flows is not the same for all destination countries.…”
Section: Econometric Methodsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…This effect can be termed "multilateral resistance to tourism" and can be controlled for by including source-year and destination-year fixed effects (Neumayer & Plümper, 2016). However, although PPML is the recommended estimator procedure to estimate gravity equations, this method is only applied in 17% of the reviewed papers and most of the papers fail to include MRT, as in Khalid, Okafor, and Burzynska (2021), Khalid, Okafor, and Sanusi (2021) or Okafor, Tan, and Khalid (2021).…”
Section: Econometric Methodsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…GVAR studies have provided empirical evidence that macroeconomic variables of the countries investigated are more influenced by shocks originating from countries within the region than outside the region (e.g., Ong and Sato 2018). Tourism markets are closely interdependent particularly within the same region (Assaf et al 2019), such as the Asia Pacific region, which can be explained by its dominance of intra-regional travel 1 (UNWTO 2019), as well as regional economic cooperation (e.g., regional trade agreements) (Khalid, Okafor, and Burzynska 2021).…”
Section: Internationalized and Regionalized Systemsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…"一带一路" 倡议以 "五通" 为重点合作内容, 对 中国出境旅游流的作用不可忽视。 "政策沟通" 协调 了参与国之间的旅游差异, 并通过旅游签证便利 化、 离境退税、 建立多边旅游合作机制等政策手段 便利中国出境旅游 [10] ; "设施联通" 下形成的基础设 施网络, 大大降低了中国与各国间的交易成本, 进 一步联通了双边旅游通道, 提升了参与国的旅游可 进入性和景观可达性 [11] ; "资金融通" 为参与国和中 国提供了更便捷的资金结算方式, 便利了旅游交易 活动, 同时对于消除投资壁垒, 吸引旅游投资, 也大 有裨益 [12] ; "贸易畅通" 推动了旅游服务贸易的开展, 中国与参与国建立了双边或多边旅游合作机制和 旅游推广联盟 [13] ; "民心相通" 下中国与参与国互办 旅游年、 留学互派、 举办节庆活动、 体育赛事等, 有 益于打破中国与参与国间的交流壁垒, 降低旅游沟 通成本 [14] 。据此, 提出研究假设 H1。 H1: "一带一路" 倡议促进了前往参与国的出境 旅游流。 2.2"因商而游" 机制 关于 "一带一路" 倡议与国际贸易的关系可以 从降低贸易成本、 增大市场需求与潜力和引导企业 战略调整 3 个方面解析: ① "一带一路" 倡议下自贸 区谈判、 通关监管一体化、 进出口岸建设、 官方贸易 伙伴关系确立等降低了关税、 消除了交易壁垒、 提 升了贸易便利度, 均降低了双边贸易成本 [15] 。② "一 带一路" 倡议的经济促进效应, 为参与国扩大贸易 规模、 优化贸易结构提供了支撑, 刺激了参与国贸 易需求, 释放了其待开发的贸易潜力 [16,17] 。由于中国 与参与国的贸易互补性, 双边贸易优势更加明显 [18] 。 ③中央和地方政府推出政府补贴、 专项行动、 税收 优惠、 建立海外投资指南和海外预警机制等配套策 略, 改善了相关企业的财务状况, 降低了信息不对 称性, 这均有益于引导企业战略倾斜至 "一带一路" 国家 [19] 。 国际贸易的旅游促进效应已是相对成熟的研 究领域 [20,21] 。微观来看, 国际贸易活动的开展除了 需要本土人力资源支撑, 毫无疑问地会带动国际商 务人员的频繁流动, 由此产生了大批价格不敏感、 出行频繁的优质商务旅游者 [20] 。伴随着商务旅行活 动, 商务旅游者的家庭及社会联系发挥作用, 促进 了与之相关的探亲访友旅游, 形成 "牵一发而动全 身" 的全局发展 [22] 。宏观来看, 国际贸易的频繁会优 第 44 卷 第 11 期 资 源 科 学 化参与国和中国的关系态势, 新闻报道和外交政策 随之有所倾斜, 促进双边交流便利化, 正向引导两 国居民的旅游关注和兴趣 [23] 。同时, 国际贸易形成 的大规模、 多频次、 高质量出境旅游需求, 为双边旅 游服务改善、 品质提升、 产品优化提供了广阔的市 场空间和发展潜力, 带动出境旅游产业结构改善、 资源配置优化, 形成正向的产业关联效应 [24] 。据此, 提出如下假设 H2。 H2: "一带一路" 倡议带动了参与各国与中国 的贸易往来, 进而吸引了中国出境旅流游, 即 "因商 而游" 。…”
Section: 1"一带一路" 倡议对中国出境旅游流的影响unclassified
“…的文化交流指标体系, 本文参照卢盛峰等 [44] 的思路, 通过文本挖掘和计量佐证相结合的方法, 检验 "寻 文而至" 的中介作用。研究逻辑如下: 首先, 通过文 本挖掘法分析 "一带一路" 倡议促进参与各国与中 国文化交流的表征与内涵。具体而言, 使用机器学习 中的词频逆文档频率 (Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency, TFIDF) 算法实现关键词捕获 [45] , 使 用 潜 在 狄 利 克 雷 分 布(Latent Dirichlet Allocation, LDA) 模型进行主题聚类并提取 [46] 。 其次, 在文本挖掘的基础上, 引入第三次差分 项来检验文化交流是否能够带动中国入境旅游业 发展。具体来说, 参照王雄元等 [47] 的思路, 分别选取 路" 倡议的影响减小。由此可知, 参与当年倡议的 效力已经有所显现, 这似乎与宏观政策效力的显现 往往需要一定时间相悖 [13] 。究其原因, "一带一路" 倡议并非一国政府颁发并严格推行的政策制度, 不 需要政府正式发布才开始启用。虽然某些国家于 下半年才参与, 但早在上半年, 就与中国政府有所 接触, 已经形成一定的相关规划, 采取了部分前期 行动 [52] 。此外, 旅游业或者旅游者有着不同于其他 行业或对象的特点, 旅游活动的开展并非都需要长 时间的 "潜伏" , 不少的旅游者往往在兴趣发生后的 一段短时间内便可开展旅行 [53] 。同时, "一带一路" 故其对商务旅游流的促进作用较小 [24] 。综上, "因商 而游" 呈现出规模经济的规律。…”
Section: 中介机制模型unclassified