“…Code tracing may involve various forms of sketching (Cunningham et al, 2017). In STEM domains outside of programming, sketching is routinely incorporated into introductory-level courses to help lessen student's cognitive load (Wu & Rau, 2019) and improve learning (Bobek & Tversky, 2016;Gagnier, Atit, Ormand, & Shipley, 2017;Gansemer-Topf, Paepcke-Hjeltness, Russell, & Schiltz, 2021;Raiyn, 2016). Code tracing helps novice programmers identify bugs (Griffin, 2016;Xie, Nelson, & Ko, 2018), predict code output (Risha, Barria-Pineda, Akhuseyinoglu, & Brusilovsky, 2021), and in general is associated with improved learning outcomes and student engagement (Cunningham et al, 2017;Hertz & Jump, 2013;Kumar, 2013;Lopez, Whalley, Robbins, & Lister, 2008;L.…”