“…Parameter estimation for ODEs from noisy observations, also known as system identification, remains a challenging task in the statistical literature. Many methods have been developed including the nonlinear least squares (Biegler et al, 1986), the two-stage collocation methods (Varah, 1982;Liang and Wu, 2008;Lu et al, 2011;Brunel et al, 2014;Wu et al, 2014;Dattner and Klaassen, 2015;Brunton et al, 2016;Chen et al, 2017;Dai and Li, 2021), the parameter cascading methods (Ramsay et al, 2007;Cao and Ramsay, 2007;Qi and Zhao, 2010;Nanshan et al, 2022), and Bayesian methods (Huang et al, 2006;Zhang et al, 2017). Based on their different treatment of the differential equations, we summarize them into three categories.…”