Dynamics of Domestic Water Consumption in the Urban Area of the Kathmandu Valley: Situation Analysis Pre and Post 2015 Gorkha Earthquake

Abstract

Information regarding domestic water consumption is vital, as the Kathmandu Valley will soon be implementing the Melamchi Water Supply Project; however, updated information on the current situation after the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake (GEQ) is still lacking. We investigated the dynamics of domestic water consumption pre-and post-GEQ. The piped water supply was short, and consumption varied widely across the Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) branches and altitude. The reduction in piped, ground, and jar water consumption and the increase in tanker water consumption post-GEQ appeared to be due to the impact of the GEQ. However, the impact did not appear to be prominent on per capita water consumption, although it was reduced from 117 to 99 L post-GEQ. Piped, ground, and tanker water use were associated with an increase and jar water use was associated with a decrease in water consumption. Despite improvements in quantity, inequality in water consumption and inequity in affordability across wealth status was well established. This study suggests to KUKL the areas of priority where improvements to supply are required, and recommends an emphasis on resuming performance. Policy planners should consider the existing inequity in affordability, which is a major issue in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Identification of Human and Animal Fecal Contamination in Drinking Water Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Using Host-Associated Bacteroidales Quantitative PCR Assays

“…Protecting groundwater sources from fecal contamination is essential, because they are important sources of water for households for drinking and domestic purposes [36,43]. However, it is very challenging to identify the exact source and primary mechanism that introduced the human and animal fecal contamination into the water sources when there are multiple sources, which makes it difficult to predict the health risk to humans and to control or improve the water quality.…”

“…However, there is a high supply deficit, with a current average supply of 107 million liters per day (MLD) serving a demand of 415 MLD [35]. Because of this, for drinking and domestic purposes, 52% of households depend on groundwater sources [36] in which the contamination of pathogens has been reported [5,8,37,38]. In the valley, the populations of animals such as cattle (ruminant) and pigs are 157,900 and 21,000, respectively [39].…”

Validation of host‐specific Bacteroidales quantitative PCR assays and their application to microbial source tracking of drinking water sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

“…A large number of households depend on water sources, such as shallow dug and tube wells, deep tube wells and stone spouts, as an alternate to the insufficiently piped water supply (Shrestha et al . ). These sources, in which faecal contamination has been detected (Haramoto et al .…”

Comprehensive Detection of Pathogenic Bacteria in Jar Water, Community Well Groundwater, and Environmental Water in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

“…Jar water is used by 35% of households and > 60% of institutions as a drinking water source 1) . Additionally, groundwater from shallow dug, shallow tube, and deep tube wells as well as stone spouts are routinely used for drinking and other domestic purposes, including bathing, cleaning, and food washing 2) . Although jar water and groundwater are generally preferred over surface water, the quality of these water sources has also deteriorated due to the direct discharge of untreated sewage into surface water and inadequate treatment facilities.…”