202100100polymers, hemicelluloses and lignin, further assembling into cellulose fibers. Cellulose microfibrils are semicrystalline as the tight packing of cellulose chains at the biosynthesis site leads to the formation of crystalline regions which are stabilized by intra-and intermolecular hydrogen bonds as well as dispersion forces. [4] These crystalline regions are periodically separated by very short areas (a few nanometers) where the molecules are disordered but still aligned along the fiber axis. [5,6] These disordered regions are crucial to CNCs preparation and determines the length of resulting CNCs upon chemical treatments. Recent studies suggest such defects are artificially formed during processing, such as drying, rather than inherent to the native microfibril structures. [7,8] CNCs, also known as nanowhiskers, are colloidal rodshaped particles characterized by high crystallinity. [9] They can be extracted from various cellulose sources from plants such as wood pulp, cotton, and ramie, to tunicate and bacteria. [10] Due to their low densities (about 1.6 g cm −3 [11] ) and impressive mechanical strengths (Young's modulus above 100 GPa in the axial direction, similar to that of Kevlar [12,13] ), CNCs have found applications as reinforcement agents in polymer nanocomposites, [14] oxygen and moisture barriers, [14] and for smart coatings in photonic applications, [15] electronic materials, [16] biodegradable packing and food ingredients. [17] The growing interest in such a novel biomaterial has resulted in accelerated industrial production of CNCs, with several companies active in the sector. [18][19][20] As an example, Celluforce is a fully functioning industrial plant in Canada that uses wood pulp as a raw material to produce up to 300 tons of CNCs annually. Melodea Ltd is currently operating a pilot-scale production line that produces sulfated CNCs in Israel (producing 100 kg per day), which, once fully scaled-up, should ultimately be able to produce 200 tons of CNCs per year in Sweden. The University of Maine Process Development Center, based in the US, can produce 90 kg of sulfated CNCs a week from dissolving wood pulp. GranBio (formerly American Process) exploits agricultural residues to produce CNCs using sulfur dioxide/ethanol mixtures with a production capacity of 0.5 ton per day. Blue Goose Biorefineries and Anomera (both in Canada) are producing carboxylated CNCs from viscose grade dissolving pulp with a capacity of about 100-150 kg per week.However, so far, the production of CNCs on an industrial scale mainly relies on sulfuric acid hydrolysis. The first successful preparation of an aqueous colloidal cellulose solution was by Rånby in 1949 using 2.5 N sulfuric acid. [21,22] Since then,