“…Over the past few decades, the significant expansion of industrialization, coupled with climate change, population growth, and water contamination has emerged as a critical concern for sustainable development due to the increasingly severe scarcity of water resources [ 1 , 2 ]. Therefore, affordable and highly efficient membrane-based technologies with low energy consumption, a modular nature, and a small footprint have become increasingly popular for water and wastewater treatment [ 3 , 4 ]. Among these technologies, microfiltration (MF) membranes with a pore size ranging from 100 nm to 10 µm and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes with a pore size of 2–100 nm are widely utilized due to their ability to remove contaminants with large molecules at low pressure [ 5 ].…”